Noninfectious Diseases and Pathology of Reptiles

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
2020 Preface, Volume 2
Acknowledgments
Editors
Contributors
1. Reptile Neoplasia
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Review by Systems and Organs
		1.2.1 Integumentary System
		1.2.2 Urinary System
		1.2.3 Alimentary System
		1.2.4 Pancreas
		1.2.5 Hepatobiliary System
		1.2.6 Reproductive System
		1.2.7 Endocrine System
		1.2.8 Musculoskeletal System
		1.2.9 Soft Tissue Sarcoma
		1.2.10 Hematopoietic and Lymphoid Systems
		1.2.11 Nervous System
		1.2.12 Respiratory System
		1.2.13 Cardiovascular System
		1.2.14 Special Senses
		1.2.15 Miscellaneous Intracoelomic Neoplasia
	1.3 Ancillary Diagnostic Procedures
		1.3.1 Immunohistochemistry
		1.3.2 Special Stains
		1.3.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy
	References
2. Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Obesity
	2.3 Lipidosis
	2.4 Xanthomatosis
	2.5 Atheromatosis
	2.6 Emaciation
	2.7 Pyramiding in Chelonians
	2.8 Metabolic Bone Disease
		2.8.1 Calcium and Phosphorus Homeostasis
		2.8.2 Osteoporosis
		2.8.3 Rickets and Osteomalacia
		2.8.4 Nutritional and Husbandry-Related Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
	2.9 Soft Tissue Mineralization of Dietary and Metabolic Origin
	2.10 Vitamin A Deficiency
	2.11 Hypervitaminosis A
	2.12 Pansteatitis
	2.13 Goiter
	2.14 Thiamine Deficiency
	2.15 Hyperglycemia
	References
3. Depositional Diseases
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Gout
		3.2.1 Causes
		3.2.2 Prevalence of Gout
		3.2.3 Common Pathologic Features of Gout
		3.2.4 Renal and Visceral Gout
		3.2.5 Articular and Periarticular Gout
		3.2.6 Gout-Like Lesions
	3.3 Urolithiasis
		3.3.1 Prevalence and Predisposing Factors
		3.3.2 Composition
		3.3.3 Signs and Associated Lesions
	3.4 Mineralization
		3.4.1 Causes and Types
		3.4.2 Visceral Mineralization
		3.4.3 Articular and Periarticular Mineral Deposition
	3.5 Amyloidosis
		3.5.1 Causes and Types
		3.5.2 Pathologic Features and Diagnosis
		3.5.3 Paramyloid
	3.6 Glomerular Basement Membrane Diseases
	3.7 Pigment Deposition
		3.7.1 Iron
		3.7.2 Lipofuscin
		3.7.3 Melanin
	3.8 Fatty Deposits
		3.8.1 Lipid
		3.8.2 Cholesterol
	3.9 Miscellaneous Deposits
	References
4. Normal and Abnormal Reptile Development
	4.1 Introduction and General Background
		4.1.1 Reproductive Cycles
		4.1.2 Ovipary and Vivipary
	4.2 Review of Normal Development of Lizards and Snakes
		4.2.1 Early Embryogenesis
		4.2.2 Extraembryonic Membranes
		4.2.3 Neurogenesis, Somitogenesis
		4.2.4 External Morphology
		4.2.5 Intrauterine Gestation
	4.3 Developmental Anomalies in Lizards and Snakes
		4.3.1 Introduction
		4.3.2 Pigmentation Anomalies
		4.3.3 Malformations and Anomalies of Scales
		4.3.4 Bicephaly
		4.3.5 Spine Deformities
		4.3.6 Malformations or Agenesis of the Tail
		4.3.7 Dwarfism
		4.3.8 Schistosomus Reflexus Syndrome
		4.3.9 Ocular Malformations
		4.3.10 Cephalic Malformations
		4.3.11 Malformations of Internal Organs
	4.4 Review of Normal Testudines Development
		4.4.1 Reproductive Biology and Natural History
		4.4.2 Sperm Storage
		4.4.3 Eggshells
		4.4.4 Fertilization and Development
	4.5 Review of Normal Crocodilian Development
	4.6 Developmental Anomalies in Testudines and Crocodylia
		4.6.1 Introduction
		4.6.2 Testudines
		4.6.3 Crocodylia
	4.7 Review of Normal Tuatara .(Sphenodon punctatus). Development
		4.7.1 Reproductive Biology and Natural History
		4.7.2 Nests and Incubation
		4.7.3 Embryogenesis
		4.7.4 Hatchling to Adult
	4.8 Developmental Anomalies in the Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus)
	Acknowledgments
	References
5. Degenerative Diseases
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Skin
	5.3 Nervous System
	5.4 Special Sense Organs
	5.5 Coelom
	5.6 Respiratory System
	5.7 Cardiovascular System
	5.8 Digestive System
	5.9 Hepatobiliary System and Pancreas
	5.10 Immune System
	5.11 Urinary System
	5.12 Reproductive System
	5.13 Endocrine System
	5.14 Musculoskeletal System
	References
6. Trauma and Physical Diseases
	6.1 General Comments
	6.2 Conspecific or Cagemate Trauma
		6.2.1 Male-Male Aggression
		6.2.2 Mate/Breeding Trauma
		6.2.3 Overcrowding or Mixed-Species Encounters
		6.2.4 “Feeding Frenzy”
	6.3 Self-Induced Trauma
		6.3.1 Escape Behaviors and Enclosure-Related Trauma
		6.3.2 Other Stress-Related Behaviors
	6.4 Other Trauma
		6.4.1 Entrapments
		6.4.2 Crush Injuries
		6.4.3 Handling Injuries and Human Cruelty
		6.4.4 Vehicle Strikes
		6.4.5 Predator/Prey Bites
		6.4.6 Foreign Body Ingestion and Inappropriate Food Items
	6.5 Environmental and Physical Diseases
		6.5.1 Hypothermia
		6.5.2 Hyperthermia
		6.5.3 Burns
		6.5.4 Electrocution
		6.5.5 Dehydration
		6.5.6 Excessive Humidity/Wet Conditions
		6.5.7 Toenail/Beak Overgrowth or Deformity
		6.5.8 Lighting and Other Physical Disturbances
		6.5.9 Irradiation
		6.5.10 Acoustic Injuries and Underwater Explosion Injuries
	6.6 Other “Accidents”
		6.6.1 Intestinal or Other Visceral Accidents
		6.6.2 Overturned Tortoises
		6.6.3 Drowning
		6.6.4 Decompression Sickness and Gas Bubble Disease
	Acknowledgments
	References
7. Environmental and Miscellaneous Toxicoses in Reptiles
	7.1 General. Comments
	7.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants
		7.2.1 Chelonia
		7.2.2 Crocodylia
		7.2.3 Sauria
		7.2.4 Ophidia
	7.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Crude Oil
		7.3.1 Chelonia
		7.3.2 Crocodylia
		7.3.3 Sauria
		7.3.4 Ophidia
	7.4 Inorganic Pollutants: Metals
		7.4.1 Chelonia
		7.4.2 Crocodylia
		7.4.3 Sauria
		7.4.4 Ophidia
	7.5 Emerging Pollutants
		7.5.1 Chelonia
		7.5.2 Crocodylia
		7.5.3 Sauria
		7.5.4 Ophidia
	7.6 Macroplastics and Microplastics
	7.7 Pesticide Poisoning
		7.7.1 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors
		7.7.2 Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids
		7.7.3 Anticoagulant Rodenticides
		7.7.4 Cholecalciferol (and Calcium)
		7.7.5 Sodium Monofluoroacetate (Compound 1080)
		7.7.6 Zinc Phosphide
		7.7.7 Glyphosate
		7.7.8 Atrazine
		7.7.9 Neonicotinoids and Fipronil
	7.8 Biotoxins
		7.8.1 Saxitoxins
		7.8.2 Brevetoxins
		7.8.3 Microcystins
		7.8.4 Other Toxins from Cyanobacteria
		7.8.5 Tetrodotoxin
	7.9 Drug Toxicoses
		7.9.1 Ivermectin
		7.9.2 Benzimidizole Anthelmintics
		7.9.3 Metronidazole
		7.9.4 Gentamicin
		7.9.5 Dioctyl Sodium Sulfosuccinate
		7.9.6 Ibuprofen
	7.10 Plant Toxicoses
	7.11 Envenomation and Self-Envenomation
	Acknowledgments
	References
8. Physiology and Diseases of the Reproductive System
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Sex-Determining Mechanisms
		8.2.1 Genotypic Sex Determination (GSD)
		8.2.2 Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination
	8.3 Gonad and Sex Duct Differentiation
	8.4 Endocrine Regulation of Reproduction
	8.5 Seasonal Cyclicity
	8.6 Spermatogenesis
	8.7 Ovarian Physiology
		8.7.1 Oogenesis
		8.7.2 Folliculogenesis
		8.7.3 Ovulation
		8.7.4 Corpus Luteum Development
		8.7.5 Follicular Atresia
	8.8 Copulation and Fertilization
	8.9 Embryo Development and Birth
		8.9.1 Extraembryonic Membrane Development
		8.9.2 Oviparous Development in the Oviduct
		8.9.3 Egg Physiology
		8.9.4 Viviparous Development
		8.9.5 Embryo Development
		8.9.6 Neonatal Reptiles
	8.10 Nutrient Metabolism Effect on Reproduction
	8.11 Stress Effect on Reproduction
	8.12 Noninfectious Causes of Reproductive Disease
		8.12.1 Aging (Degenerative Diseases)
		8.12.2 Neoplasia of the Reproductive Tract
		8.12.3 Environmental Factors
		8.12.4 Reproductive Toxicants and Endocrine Disruption
		8.12.5 Industrial and Petroleum Compounds or Byproducts
		8.12.6 Pharmaceutical Contaminants in the Environment
		8.12.7 Pesticides
		8.12.8 Heavy Metals—Trace Elements
		8.12.9 Algal Toxin
	8.13 Observations on Intersex
		8.13.1 True Hermaphrodites (Ovotestes)
		8.13.2 Pseudohermaphroditism
		8.13.3 Dysplasia and Aplasia of the Tubular Tract
	8.14 Diseases of the Male Reproductive Tract
		8.14.1 Testicular Degeneration
		8.14.2 Breach of Blood-Testis Barrier
		8.14.3 Orchitis
		8.14.4 Disease of Epididymis and Vas Deferens
		8.14.5 Defective Spermatogenesis
		8.14.6 Disease of Male External Genitalia and Cloaca
	8.15 Diseases of Female Reproductive Tract
		8.15.1 Atresia and Congenital Ovarian Disease
		8.15.2 Follicular Atresia and Degeneration
		8.15.3 Ovarian Hemorrhage
		8.15.4 Oophoritis
		8.15.5 Preovulatory Disease
		8.15.6 Periovulatory Disease
		8.15.7 Postovulatory Disease
		8.15.8 Yolk Coelomitis
		8.15.9 Dystocia
		8.15.10 Female Cloaca and Oviduct Prolapse
		8.15.11 Disease of Non-Gravid Oviduct
	8.16 Egg Viability
	8.17 Early Embryonic Death
	8.18 Late Embryonic Death
	8.19 Perinatal Disease
	Acknowledgments
	References
9. Reptile Cardiovascular System
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Anatomy and Physiology
		9.2.1 Anatomy of Chelonia and Squamata
		9.2.2 Anatomy of Sphenodontia
		9.2.3 Anatomy of Crocodylia
		9.2.4 Cardiac Blood Supply
		9.2.5 Neuroanatomy
		9.2.6 Blood Flow and Shunting
		9.2.7 Blood Pressure
		9.2.8 Neuroendocrine Function
	9.3 Cardiovascular Diseases
		9.3.1 Degenerative Diseases
		9.3.2 Deposition Diseases
		9.3.3 Developmental Anomalies
		9.3.4 Metabolic Diseases
		9.3.5 Neoplastic Diseases
		9.3.6 Nutritional Diseases
		9.3.7 Idiopathic Cardiovascular Diseases
		9.3.8 Infectious Diseases
		9.3.9 Trauma
	References
10. Bone Alteration by Disease
	10.1 Introduction and General Background
	10.2 Descriptives
	10.3 Congenital Anomalies
	10.4 Osteochondrosis versus Osteochondritis
	10.5 Osteoarthritis or Osteoarthrosis
	10.6 Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis
	10.7 Stress Fractures
	10.8 Exostoses, Osteochondroma, and Avulsions
	10.9 Infection
	10.10 Avascular Necrosis
	10.11 Metabolic Disease
		10.11.1 Vitamin D-Related Disease
		10.11.2 Parathyroid-Related Disease
		10.11.3 Paget’s Disease
		10.11.4 Gout
		10.11.5 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease
	10.12 Spondyloarthropathy
	10.13 Benign Neoplasia
	10.14 Malignant Neoplasia
	10.15 Summary
	References
Index