Nonconventional and vernacular construction materials: characterisation, properties and applications

Cover......Page 1
Nonconventional and Vernacular Construction Materials: Characterisation, Properties and Applications......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contributors......Page 4
Preface......Page 6
 1.1 Bam......Page 9
 1.2 Vernacular......Page 13
  1.2.1 “Vernacular” defined......Page 14
 1.4 The “vernacular” of industrial architecture......Page 16
 1.5 Srinagar, Kashmir, India......Page 19
 1.6 The great 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire......Page 26
 1.7 Skeleton-frame construction......Page 30
 1.8 Frames and solid walls......Page 35
 1.9 Conclusion: the “ecology” of the vernacular......Page 36
 References......Page 42
16 - Nonconventional timber construction......Page 45
 2.2 Natural materials in historic construction......Page 47
 2.3 Reinforced adobes as energy-saving construction materials......Page 53
   22.2.1 Raw bamboo selection......Page 624
  2.3.2 Improvement of physical and mechanical properties (fabrication stage)......Page 55
  2.3.3 Effective use of adobes in building construction (building construction stage)......Page 56
 6.4 Future directions: a proposed “bamboo mining” model for the application of materials informatics to non-conventional materials......Page 57
  2.4.3 Bamboo as a functionally graded composite material......Page 58
  2.4.4 Mapping of physical and mechanical properties of full-culm bamboo......Page 60
   2.4.4.1 Dimensions of the bamboo culm......Page 62
   2.4.4.2 Data for the selection of bamboo for engineering projects......Page 64
 2.5 Application of natural and alternative materials in modern bridge construction......Page 65
 2.6 Concluding remarks......Page 66
 References......Page 67
6 - The potential for materials informatics in the development of non-conventional materials......Page 70
  3.2.1 Life cycle approach......Page 73
   8.3.1.1 Moisture......Page 75
    Disassembly......Page 76
    Supply chains......Page 77
    Resilience......Page 78
    Cultural significance......Page 79
    Localization of resources, materials, and processes......Page 80
    Industrialization and quality control......Page 81
 19.3 Design considerations......Page 82
  3.3.2 Intersectional innovation......Page 84
 References......Page 85
 21.1 Introduction......Page 88
 4.2 Material standard versus standard material......Page 90
 4.3 The ‘cart and horse’......Page 92
 4.4 Consensus standards development......Page 94
 4.5 “Shall”, “should” and “may” – the language of standards......Page 97
  4.6.1 Allowable stress approach to design......Page 98
  22.7 Analysis of carbon footprints......Page 99
  18.1.5 Bamboo reinforced concrete......Page 179
 4.8 Appropriate codes and standards for nonconventional and vernacular materials......Page 100
 4.9 Challenges and opportunities of codes and standards development for nonconventional and vernacular materials......Page 102
 4.10 Conclusions, observations and needs for the future......Page 104
 References......Page 105
18 - Bamboo material characterisation......Page 108
 5.2 Justice and sustainability contexts of NOCMAT......Page 110
  5.3.1 Brief introduction to appropriate technology......Page 113
  5.3.2 Vernacular experience and local innovation......Page 114
  5.3.3 Other frameworks compatible with appropriate technology......Page 117
  5.4.1 Integrating NOCMAT in mechanics of materials......Page 118
  5.4.2 Incorporating design and active learning......Page 119
  5.4.3 Transcending systemic methodological constraints......Page 120
  5.4.4 Engaging values and social context......Page 121
 5.5 Toward vernacular experience in engineering education......Page 125
  5.6.1 University of Pittsburgh......Page 127
  5.6.2 University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez......Page 128
 5.7 Concluding remarks......Page 131
 Acknowledgments......Page 132
 References......Page 465
 6.1 Introduction......Page 137
  21.2.1 General manufacturing process......Page 597
 6.3 Application of imaging for materials informatics to non-conventional materials......Page 141
 References......Page 145
23 - Paperboard tubes in structural and construction engineering......Page 353
  7.1.1 Availability and potential of vegetable fibers......Page 147
  7.1.2 Vegetable fibers as reinforcement for brittle matrices......Page 148
  7.2.1 Macrofibers......Page 151
  7.2.2 Pulp fibers......Page 153
  7.2.3 Organosolv pulp production and properties......Page 155
  7.2.4 Nanofibrillated cellulose......Page 156
  7.2.6 Properties of nanofibrillated cellulose......Page 158
  7.3.1 Composites reinforced with bamboo cellulose fiber......Page 160
  7.3.2 Pulp reinforced cement-based composites......Page 161
  7.3.3 Engineered composites with hybrid reinforcement......Page 162
  7.3.4 Durability......Page 164
 7.4 Final remarks and perspective for future research needs......Page 165
 References......Page 166
 10.1 Introduction......Page 174
 8.2 Description of biocomposites......Page 175
  11.2.2 Chemical properties......Page 253
  8.2.2 Natural fibers......Page 176
  17.5.3 Case study III: Brock Commons Tall Wood Building......Page 178
 8.3 Durability concerns......Page 180
  21.3.2 Connections......Page 204
  8.3.2 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation......Page 184
  16.3.1 Understanding the nature of wood as a natural composite......Page 443
  8.3.4 Fire......Page 185
 21.4 Thermal, durability, long term behavior, and fire performance......Page 187
 8.5 Conclusions and future research......Page 188
 References......Page 189
10 - Natural plant-based aggregates and bio-composite panels with low thermal conductivity and high hygrothermal efficiency for  .........Page 221
 9.1 Introduction......Page 193
  9.2.1 Plant growth......Page 196
  9.2.3 Hygrothermal properties......Page 197
  9.2.4 Durability......Page 199
  9.2.5 Materials used with straw bales......Page 202
  9.3.1 Physical and mechanical properties......Page 203
  9.3.3 Hygrothermal properties and risk of decay......Page 205
  9.3.5 Life-cycle assessment of straw bale construction......Page 207
 9.4 Applications......Page 209
   22.6.1 Glubam pedestrian bridges......Page 633
  9.4.2 Design of straw bale buildings......Page 210
  12.3.2 Soil preparation......Page 212
   9.4.3.2 Non-load-bearing applications......Page 214
  9.4.4 Prefabricated panel construction......Page 215
 9.5 Future of straw bale construction......Page 217
 References......Page 218
  10.2.1 Morphology of hemp......Page 226
  10.2.2 Morphology of flax......Page 227
  10.2.3 Morphology of rape......Page 229
  10.3.1 Measurement of porosity of natural fiber aggregates......Page 230
  10.3.2 Bulk density of natural fiber aggregates......Page 231
  10.3.3 Moisture buffer values for natural fiber aggregates......Page 232
  10.3.4 Thermal conductivity......Page 233
 16.4 Modern engineering applications......Page 235
  10.4.3 Thermal conductivity of ISOBIO composite panel......Page 237
 10.5 Performance of ISOBIO panels in test cells......Page 239
 17.6 Design considerations and principles......Page 483
 16.7 Conclusions......Page 463
 References......Page 247
11 - Utilization of industrial by-products and natural ashes in mortar and concrete development of sustainable construction mate .........Page 250
 11.1 Introduction......Page 251
 20.2 Characteristics of bamboo as building material......Page 560
   11.2.3.1 Setting time......Page 254
   11.2.3.2 Hydration properties......Page 256
   11.2.3.3 Strength properties......Page 257
   11.2.3.4 Durability properties......Page 260
 11.3 Silica fume......Page 262
   11.3.3.1 Water demand and workability......Page 263
   11.3.3.2 Setting time......Page 264
   11.3.3.4 Strength properties......Page 265
 11.4 Waste foundry sand......Page 266
  11.4.1 Physical properties......Page 271
  11.4.2 Chemical properties......Page 272
  11.4.3 Applications of WFS......Page 273
   11.4.4.1 Strength properties......Page 274
 11.5 Rice husk ash......Page 275
   11.5.3.1 Strength properties......Page 276
   11.5.3.2 Durability properties......Page 281
 11.6 Palm oil fuel ash......Page 282
   11.6.3.1 Strength properties......Page 283
   11.6.3.2 Durability properties......Page 286
  11.7.1 Introduction......Page 288
  11.7.2 Utilization of industrial by-products......Page 289
   11.7.3.1 Workability......Page 291
   11.7.3.2 Strength properties......Page 292
   11.7.3.4 Summary......Page 294
  11.7.4 Conclusions......Page 295
 References......Page 296
22 - Engineered bamboo in China......Page 307
  12.1.1 Economic and environmental issues......Page 308
  16.1.3 Timber – natural rounds......Page 311
 12.2 Materials selection and block production......Page 312
  14.3.1 Hygrothermal performance......Page 313
  12.2.3 Soil identification and selection......Page 314
  12.2.4 Stabilization of soil for CSEB production......Page 317
   12.2.5.2 Lime......Page 320
   12.2.6.1 Compressive strength......Page 321
   12.2.6.2 Moisture volumetric strain......Page 322
   12.2.6.4 Dimensional tolerance of CSEBs......Page 323
 12.3 Block production......Page 325
  21.4.4 Fire performance......Page 326
  12.3.3 Batch quantities for CSEB production......Page 327
  12.3.4 Mixing of materials......Page 328
  12.3.5 Manual and mechanized production......Page 329
  19.8.2 Dowel connection capacity......Page 551
  12.4.1 Key features of interlocking units......Page 333
  12.4.2 Construction using CSEBs......Page 334
  12.4.3 Dry-stacking of masonry......Page 336
 12.5 Strength evaluation of block units and masonry walls......Page 338
   12.5.2.1 Methods of compression strength evaluation......Page 339
   12.5.2.2 Capping arrangement......Page 340
  12.5.3 Factors affecting the strength in compression of CSEBs......Page 341
   12.5.3.2 Effect of cement content......Page 342
   12.5.4.1 Compression tests on dry-stack masonry wall (in-plane loading)......Page 343
   12.5.4.2 Behavior of conventional masonry wall under lateral load......Page 344
   12.5.4.3 Behavior of dry-stack masonry wall under lateral load......Page 345
  12.6.1 Durability of stabilized soil blocks......Page 346
  12.6.3 Water absorption by capillarity rise (sorptivity)......Page 347
 12.7 Conclusions......Page 349
 References......Page 350
 13.2 Structure and properties of clay soils......Page 355
 13.4 Clay materials without additives......Page 358
 13.5 Industrial additives......Page 359
  13.5.1 Ground granulated blastfurnace slag......Page 360
  13.5.3 Wastepaper sludge ash......Page 363
 13.6 Agricultural additives......Page 365
  13.7.1 Formation......Page 366
  13.7.3 Construction......Page 367
  13.7.4 Durability of unfired clay materials......Page 369
 13.8 Future trends......Page 370
 References......Page 372
 14.1 Earth as a building material......Page 376
  14.2.1 Affinity with water......Page 379
  14.2.2 Hygrothermal behavior......Page 384
  14.2.3 Mechanical behavior......Page 386
  14.2.4 Impact on the building design......Page 390
  14.2.5 Earth stabilization: the challenges and limitations......Page 392
  22.3 Material properties of engineered bamboo......Page 393
  14.3.2 Mechanical stability and durability......Page 395
 14.4 Concluding remarks on earthen building sustainability......Page 397
 References......Page 398
 15.2 Overview of ancient applications......Page 404
   15.3.1.2 Intrusive rocks......Page 406
   15.3.1.3 Volcanic rocks......Page 407
   15.3.1.4 Sedimentary rocks......Page 408
    15.3.1.4.1 Rocks of biochemical origin......Page 409
    15.3.1.4.2 Rocks of chemical origin......Page 410
  15.3.2 Petrographic characteristics and use of rocks as building materials......Page 411
  15.3.3 Mortars......Page 413
 15.4 Masonry constructions......Page 416
  15.4.1 The box behavior......Page 417
  15.4.2 The masonry wall......Page 418
   15.4.3.1 Dry stone walls......Page 419
   15.4.3.2 Rubble masonry......Page 420
   15.4.3.3 Ashlar masonry......Page 422
   15.4.3.4 Masonry with wood reinforcing......Page 423
  15.5.1 Assessment of the safety......Page 424
  17.5.8 Case study VIII: River Beech......Page 427
 15.7 Role of masonry in sustainable construction......Page 430
 References......Page 665
  16.1.4 Timber – sawn members......Page 437
  16.1.5 Timber – processed elements and products......Page 438
  16.2.1 Simple structures......Page 439
  16.2.2 Bridges......Page 440
  16.2.3 Buildings......Page 442
  16.3.2 Structural properties......Page 444
  16.3.3 Wood and timber......Page 445
  16.3.4 Effects of moisture......Page 446
  16.3.5 Time-dependent behavior......Page 447
  16.3.6 Durability......Page 448
  16.4.1 Grading......Page 451
   16.4.2.1 Sheet products......Page 452
   16.4.2.2 Beam products......Page 453
   16.4.2.3 Massive timber products......Page 455
 16.5 Significant case studies......Page 456
 16.6 Codes and standards......Page 461
21 - Engineered bamboo for structural applications......Page 466
 17.2 What is tall timber?......Page 467
 17.3 The argument for tall timber......Page 469
 17.4 Materials and manufacturing for tall timber......Page 472
 17.5 Tall timber case studies......Page 475
  17.5.2 Case study II: Treet......Page 476
  17.5.4 Case study IV: Mjøstårnet......Page 479
  17.5.5 Case study V: FFTT 30......Page 480
  17.5.7 Case study VII: Oakwood Tower......Page 481
 17.7 The future of tall timber......Page 485
 Acknowledgments......Page 487
 References......Page 488
 18.1 Introduction......Page 490
  18.1.1 Bamboo as a plant......Page 491
   18.1.2.1 Effect of density on mechanical properties......Page 493
   18.1.2.3 Effect of age on other properties......Page 494
   18.1.2.4 Effect of moisture content......Page 497
   18.1.2.5 Dimensional properties of the culm......Page 498
   18.1.2.6 Functionally graded material......Page 499
  18.1.3 Tests for material and physical property determination......Page 500
   18.1.3.1 Characterisation for grading operations......Page 505
   18.1.3.2 Development of test standards......Page 506
   18.1.3.3 Case study: G. angustifolia......Page 507
  18.1.4 Derivation of design values......Page 508
  18.1.6 Further work and future developments......Page 513
  18.1.7 Concluding remarks......Page 515
 References......Page 516
20 - Joints in bamboo construction......Page 559
  19.1.1 Bamboo species......Page 521
  19.1.2 Bamboo-based products......Page 522
  19.1.3 Types of structures......Page 523
  19.2.1 Anatomy of bamboo culms......Page 527
  19.2.2 Physical and mechanical properties......Page 528
  19.2.3 Bamboo preservation......Page 529
  19.2.4 Fire resistance......Page 531
  19.3.1 Bamboo testing standards......Page 532
   19.3.2.1 Structural design basis......Page 533
   19.3.2.2 Structural design method......Page 534
 19.4 Bending members......Page 535
  19.4.1 Deflections......Page 536
  19.4.2 Flexure......Page 539
  19.4.4 Bearing......Page 540
  19.5.1 Compression elements......Page 541
  19.5.2 Tension elements......Page 543
 19.7 Shear walls......Page 544
  19.8.1 Types of connections......Page 547
 19.9 Fabrication and construction......Page 554
 19.10 Concluding remarks and future research......Page 555
 References......Page 556
 20.3 Classification of bamboo culm construction......Page 562
  20.3.1 Traditional or vernacular bamboo construction......Page 564
  20.3.2 Engineered conventional bamboo construction......Page 566
  20.3.3 Substitutive bamboo constructions......Page 567
 20.4 Classification of bamboo joints......Page 568
  20.4.1 Group 1: transferring compression through contact with the whole section......Page 570
  20.4.2 Group 2: transferring force through friction on the inner surface or compression to the diaphragm......Page 571
   22.5.1 Lightweight glubam-frame buildings......Page 630
  20.4.4 Group 4: transferring force through a perpendicular element......Page 574
  20.4.6 Group 6: transferring radial compression to the center of the culm......Page 576
  20.4.7 Combinations of connections......Page 577
   20.4.7.1 Space structure connections – Groups 1 and 2......Page 578
   20.4.7.2 Column base connections – Groups 1, 3 and 4B......Page 580
   20.4.7.4 Mortar-filled gusset joints – Groups 1, 2 and 4......Page 581
   20.4.7.5 Splices connections – Groups 3 and 4B and Groups 2 and 3......Page 582
 20.5 Development of bamboo joints for tension......Page 583
  20.5.1 Development of joints using the hollow nature of bamboo......Page 584
  20.5.2 Development of joints with perpendicular elements......Page 586
  20.5.3 Development of modern lashed joints......Page 587
   20.5.3.1 Pretensioned lashed connections......Page 588
   20.5.3.2 Demonstration of pretensioned lashed connections......Page 590
 20.6 Conclusions......Page 591
 References......Page 592
  21.2.2 Bamboo scrimber......Page 598
  21.2.3 Laminated bamboo......Page 599
   21.2.5.1 Bio-based adhesives......Page 600
 21.3 Material and mechanical properties......Page 601
   21.3.1.1 Tension......Page 603
   21.3.1.4 Bending......Page 605
  21.3.3 Structural components......Page 606
  21.4.2 Durability......Page 607
  21.4.3 Creep and fatigue behavior......Page 608
  22.5 Applications: buildings......Page 609
  21.6.2 Case study: bamboo house, Moso Bamboo Modern Technological Park, Anji, China......Page 611
  21.6.3 Case study: curtain wall, Klöckner Pentaplast, Montabaur, Germany......Page 612
 21.7 Design and standardization......Page 613
 21.8 Future pathways......Page 615
 21.9 Conclusions......Page 616
 References......Page 617
  22.1 Introduction......Page 622
   22.2.2 Bamboo strips......Page 625
   22.2.5 Post-processing......Page 626
   22.4.1 Columns......Page 627
   22.4.2 Beams and girders......Page 629
   22.5.2 Glubam temporary shelters for disaster relief......Page 632
   22.6.2 Truck load roadway bridge......Page 635
  22.8 Future research needs......Page 637
  References......Page 638
 23.1 Introduction......Page 641
 23.2 Paper tube manufacturing and primary uses......Page 644
 23.3 Mechanics and properties of paperboard and tube materials......Page 647
 23.4 Structural systems......Page 652
  23.5.1 Columns......Page 653
  23.5.2 Beams......Page 656
  23.5.3 Arches, trusses, and frames......Page 658
 23.6 Structural analysis and design......Page 661
  23.6.1 Member design......Page 663
 23.7 Conclusion......Page 664
 A......Page 669
 B......Page 670
 C......Page 673
 D......Page 676
 E......Page 677
 G......Page 679
 H......Page 680
 I......Page 681
 L......Page 682
 M......Page 683
 N......Page 685
 O......Page 686
 P......Page 687
 R......Page 688
 S......Page 689
 T......Page 692
 V......Page 693
 Z......Page 694
Back Cover......Page 695