Nomads on Pilgrimage: Mongols on Wutaishan (China), 1800-1940

Contents
Acknowledgments
List of Tables, Maps and Figures
Correct Tibetan Spellings
Note on Transcriptions and Other Conventions
Introduction
	Introduction
			Focus of the Book
			The Sources to Study Mongols’ Pilgrimages
				Mongolian Stone Inscriptions on Wutaishan
				Other Emic Sources
				Etic Sources
				Secondary Literature
				Present-day Observations
			Questions of Vocabulary
				Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Mongols: Geography and Diversity
				Tibeto-Mongol Buddhism and Chinese Buddhism
				Definition of Pilgrimage in a Mongol Context
Chapter 1
	The Pilgrimage Sites of the Mongols: An Overview
			Sacred Mountains—The Tibetan Buddhist and Chinese Buddhist Cosmologies
			Buddhist Pilgrimages Abroad
				Kumbum: The Birthplace of Tsongkhapa
				Lhasa, Nepal and India: A Risky Expedition
				The Pilgrimage to Beijing
			Pilgrimages to Reincarnations and Saints in Mongolia
				Reincarnated Lamas Touring Inner Mongolia
				Urga (Yekhe Khüriye), Residence of the Jebtsündamba Khutugtu
			Pilgrimages to Buddhist Monasteries
				Pilgrimages to Relics and Ancient Icons
				Monasteries Renowned for Their Fairs and Trade Connections
				Monasteries Established on Natural Numinous Sites
			Pilgrimages to Mountains and Natural Numinous Sites of Mongolia
				Pilgrimages to Natural Numinous Sites
				Pilgrimages to Mountains in Mongolia
			Conclusion
Chapter 2
	The Invention of Wutaishan
			Earthly Wutaishan
				Geography, Climate and Ecology of Wutaishan
				The Human-built Buddhist Environment
				Homogeneity of Monastic Architecture
				The Natural Numinous Sites in the Landscape
			Otherworldly Wutaishan
				‘Buddha Lights’
				Visions of and Encounters with Mañjuśrī
				Souvenirs and Materialization of Miracles and Visions
			Historical Wutaishan
				Early History of Buddhism at Wutaishan and Its Association With Mañjuśrī
				Legitimization of the Temporal Power and Protection of the Chinese State
				The Construction of Temples and Monasteries
				Early Tibetan and Mongol Interest in Wutaishan and Yuan-Dynasty Patronage
				Ming-Dynasty Tibetan Buddhism on Wutaishan
			Conclusion
Chapter 3
	Political and Clerical Promotion of Wutaishan in the Qing and Republican Periods
			How the Manchu Emperors Reshaped Wutaishan
				The Qing-Dynasty Administration of the Mountain
				The Foundation of Gélukpa Monasteries on Wutaishan
				Wutaishan as a Tibeto-Mongol Enclave in Chinese Territory
			The Manchu Emperors’ Promotion of Wutaishan
				The Mañjuśrī Emperor
				The Emperors’ and Mongol Nobles’ Tours to Wutaishan
				The Production of Imperial Gazetteers
				The Qing Emperors’ Support of Chinese Buddhist Monasteries
			The Wutaishan Clergies and Their Role in the Promotion of the Pilgrimage
				Wutaishan Clergies
				Strategies of Chinese Buddhist Monasteries to Attract Mongol Pilgrims
			The Development of Syncretic Schools in the Late Qing and Republican Periods
				The Promotion of Wutaishan out on the Field
				Literary and Visual Production of the Resident Wutaishan Lamas Designed for Pilgrims
			The High-ranking Lamas Who Contributed to Empowering Wutaishan
				The Changkya Khutugtus and Wutaishan
				Famous Tibetan Buddhist Dignitaries Visiting Wutaishan
			Conclusion
Chapter 4
	The Mongol Imaginaire of Wutaishan
			Wutaishan and the Cult of Mañjuśrī in Mongolia before the Qing Period
			The Production of Mongolian Guidebooks and Maps
				Guidebooks of Wutaishan Authored or Translated by Mongols
				The Aims and Diffusion of the Mongolian Guidebooks
				The Mongols’ Production of Maps of Wutaishan
			Mongol Buddhist Imaginaire of Wutaishan
				Tibeto-Mongol Buddhist Narratives: Mandalization of Wutaishan
				Divination, Hidden Books and Sacred Néri Mountains
				Descriptions of Miraculous Manifestations in Tibetan and Mongolian Guidebooks
				Tsongkhapa on Wutaishan
				Vajrabhairava Yamāntaka on Wutaishan
				The Sixth Dalai Lama on Wutaishan
			Mongols’ Knowledge of the Ancient Chinese History of Wutaishan
			Mongol Popular Imaginaire of Wutaishan
				Mañjuśrī as the God of Wisdom and Astrology
				Mañjuśrī in Popular Prayers and Rituals
				Mañjuśrī the Dragon King
				Old Mañjuśrī and the White Old Man
				Wutaishan as the Place to Find Hidden Treasures
				The Cult of Wutaishan Mountain in Mongolia
			The Cult of Wutaishan: A Late Phenomenon?
Chapter 5
	The Mongol Pilgrims: Sociological and Economic Aspects
			A Major Source on the Pilgrimage: The Stone Inscriptions
			Who Were the Mongol Pilgrims?
				Mongol Society in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
				The Social Origin, Status and Gender of the Pilgrims
				The Geographical Origin of the Donors Who Left Their Names on Stone Inscriptions
			The Pilgrimage to Wutaishan: A Refuge from Conflicts and Economic Stagnation?
				When Did the Mongols Go to Wutaishan?
				Wutaishan in the Conflicts of the Late 1930s
			The Contribution of Mongol Herders to the Wutaishan Economy
				Expenditures on the Journey to Wutaishan
				Donations to Monasteries
				Amounts of Donations Received by Wutaishan Monasteries
				Donations to Restore and Build Temples and Stūpas
			Mongol Trade on Wutaishan
				Exchange Value
			The Expectations of Mongol Pilgrims
				Mongol Pilgrims’ Spiritual and Mundane Expectations as Expressed in Steles
				General and Personal Expectations
			Mongol Burial on Wutaishan
			The Pilgrims’ Journey
				Preparation and Observances
				Practical Matters
				The Walking Pilgrims’ Equipment
				Time for Traveling
				Different Ways of Reaching the Sacred Place: Traveling on Foot or in Great Prostrations
				Mounted Pilgrims
				The Road to Wutaishan: Bringing the Nomadic Lifestyle to the Mountain
			Conclusion: Typology of Pilgrims
Chapter 6
	The Mongols on Wutaishan: Interactions and Encounters
			Accommodation and Reception of Pilgrims
				Accommodating Mongol Pilgrims
				Reception in a Monastery
			Great Moments of Communitas: The Festivals of Wutaishan
				The Great Sixth Month Festival
				The Ritual Calendar on Wutaishan
			Mongol Pilgrims’ Ritual Practices and Offerings at Monasteries
				Basic Devotional Gestures
				Attending Offices
				Donations to Request Specific Rituals
				Donations to Buy Farmland
				Construction and Restoration of Monasteries
				Offerings of Icons, Prayer Wheels, and Other Donations
			The Circuits of the Mongol Pilgrims
				The Main Monasteries Worshipped by the Mongols
				The Stūpas and Relics
				Worship of Specific Icons
				Worship of Reincarnations, Saints and Ascetics
			When Pilgrims Go Shopping
				Wutaishan as a Market of Buddhist Icons
				Śākyamuni’s Footprints for Sale
				The Exportation of Wutaishan Buddhist Items
			Wutaishan: A Main Place of Contact Between Chinese, Mongol and Tibetan Cultures
				Communitas between Pilgrims on Wutaishan?
				A Communitas between Mongols?
				Communitas in a Cosmopolitan Qing Empire or Mutual Incomprehension?
Chapter 7
	Mongolized Wutaishan and Mongol Wutaishans: Appropriation and Substitution
			Absorbing the Mountain’s Power
				Touching and Positioning
				Consuming and Collecting
				Seeing
				Mantic Practices
				Votos and Ex-votos
			The Caves of Wutaishan
				The Mother Womb-Cave
				The Womb-Cave Ritual in Tibetan and Mongol Pilgrimages
				Legendary Tunnel Caves of Wutaishan
			Mongol Pilgrimages Related to the Wutaishan Pilgrimage
			Conclusion: The Mongols’ Appropriation of Wutaishan
Conclusion
	Conclusion
			Wutaishan’s Legacy in Mongolia
			Rupture and Revival
				Wutaishan in the Communist Era
				The Revival of the Buddhist Communities on Wutaishan
			The Return of the Pilgrims
Appendices
Appendix 1
	Main Monasteries of Wutaishan, Early Twentieth Century
Appendix 2
	A Study of the Mongolian Stone Inscriptions of Wutaishan
			Comparison of the Chinese and Mongolian Stone Inscriptions
				Stone Inscriptions: A Chinese Tradition?
				Typology of Mongolian Stone Inscriptions
				The Polyglot Stone Inscriptions
				Mongolian Script, Language and Carving of the Stone Inscriptions
				General Structure of the Inscriptions
Appendix 3
	Khorchin Song “Utai-yin jam”
Bibliography
Index