New trends in eco-efficient and recycled concrete

Front Cover......Page 1
New Trends in Eco-efficient and Recycled Concrete......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
List of Contributors......Page 18
Foreword......Page 22
 1.1 Introduction......Page 24
 1.2 Processing of construction and demolition waste......Page 25
  1.2.1 Treatment processes for construction and demolition waste......Page 26
  1.2.2 Main types of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste......Page 27
 1.3 Influence of recycled aggregates on the fresh-state performance of concrete......Page 28
 1.4 Influence of recycled aggregates on the mechanical performance of concrete......Page 30
 1.5 Influence of recycled aggregates on the durability performance of concrete......Page 33
 1.6 Influence of recycled aggregates on the time-dependent deformation of concrete......Page 35
 1.7 Concluding remarks......Page 37
 References......Page 38
  2.1.1 Biomass to produce energy, a renewable alternative......Page 46
  2.1.2 Sources of biomass for power generation......Page 48
  2.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of biomass energy......Page 50
  2.1.4 Technologies for converting biomass into useful energy......Page 51
  2.1.5 Ash production from biomass combustion......Page 52
  2.1.6 Environmental and health aspects of biomass ashes......Page 53
  2.2.1 Classification of biomass ashes......Page 55
  2.2.2 Chemical composition of BA......Page 57
  2.2.3 Physical and microstructural properties of BA......Page 58
  2.2.4 Leaching characteristics of BA......Page 60
 2.3 Utilisations of biomass fly ash (BFA) and biomass bottom ash (BBA) in concrete design......Page 63
  2.3.2 Influence of BA on concrete’s fresh-state properties: density and slump......Page 64
  2.3.3 Physical-mechanical properties of mortars and concrete with BA......Page 65
  2.3.4 Durability-related properties: water absorption (by immersion and capillarity), carbonation resistance and chloride p.........Page 67
  2.3.5 Technological properties: thermal and acoustic insulation......Page 68
  2.4.1 Geopolymer concrete. A green concrete......Page 69
  2.4.2 Limits and opportunities of biomass ash to produce geopolymer concrete......Page 70
  2.4.4 Properties of geopolymer concrete produced with biomass ash......Page 72
  2.4.6 Use of BA-based geopolymers for thermal and acoustic insulation......Page 74
 2.5 Concluding remarks......Page 75
 References......Page 76
 Further reading......Page 81
 3.1 Introduction......Page 82
 3.3 Preparation and physical properties of recycled plastic concrete......Page 83
  3.4.1 Compressive properties......Page 89
  3.4.2 Flexural and tensile properties......Page 92
  3.5.1 Water absorption and air/water permeability......Page 96
  3.5.2 Degradation in alkaline environment......Page 97
  3.6.1 Creep......Page 98
  3.6.2 Shrinkage......Page 99
  3.7.1 Resistance to elevated temperature......Page 100
  3.7.2 Thermal conductivity......Page 101
 3.8 Final remarks......Page 102
 References......Page 103
 Further reading......Page 108
 4.1 Introduction......Page 110
  4.2.1 Chemical properties......Page 111
   4.3.1.1 Mortars with waste rubber aggregates......Page 112
   4.3.1.2 Concrete with waste rubber aggregates......Page 113
  4.3.2 Density......Page 115
  4.4.1 Hardened density......Page 116
   4.4.2.1 Replacement of natural aggregates with crumb rubber in mortars......Page 117
   4.4.2.2 Replacement of natural aggregates with crumb rubber in concrete (up to 15%)......Page 119
   4.4.2.3 Replacement of natural aggregates with crumb rubber in concrete (up to 25%)......Page 120
   4.4.2.4 Replacement of natural aggregates with crumb rubber in concrete (up to 35%)......Page 122
   4.4.2.6 Replacement of natural aggregates with crumb rubber in concrete (up to 100%)......Page 124
  4.4.3 Toughness, ductility and strain capacity......Page 125
  4.4.4 Impact energy and abrasion resistance......Page 127
  4.5.1 Water absorption porosity......Page 129
  4.5.2 Carbonation and chloride ion penetration......Page 130
  4.5.3 Drying shrinkage and cracking resistance......Page 131
  4.5.4 Freeze/thaw and ageing resistance......Page 132
  4.5.6 Fire and high-temperature resistance......Page 133
  4.6.1 Thermal insulation......Page 134
 4.7 Fields of application......Page 135
 4.8 Conclusions......Page 136
 References......Page 137
 Further reading......Page 142
 5.1 Introduction......Page 144
 5.3 Characteristics of sewage sludge ash......Page 147
 5.4 Reactivity of sewage sludge ashes in Portland cement mixtures......Page 158
 5.5 Effect of sewage sludge ash on the rheology of concrete......Page 160
 5.6 Mechanical and durability properties of concrete containing sewage sludge ash......Page 161
 5.7 Alternative binders containing sewage sludge ashes......Page 168
 5.8 Other applications of sewage sludge ashes in construction materials......Page 169
 5.9 Conclusions......Page 171
 References......Page 172
 6.1 Waste glass situation in Hong Kong......Page 176
 6.2 Background on the use of waste glass in cement-based materials......Page 177
 6.3 Application of waste glass in cement mortar......Page 178
 6.4 Application of waste glass in paving blocks......Page 180
 6.5 Application of waste glass in OPC concrete......Page 183
 6.6 Current and potential applications of waste glass in construction industries......Page 184
 6.7 Conclusion......Page 186
 References......Page 187
  7.1.1 By-products of steel manufacturing......Page 192
  7.1.2 Types and classification of steel slags......Page 193
 7.2 Steel slags from electric arc furnace......Page 197
  7.2.1 Morphology and mechanical behaviour......Page 198
  7.2.2 Specific gravity and absorption......Page 199
  7.2.3 Concrete using EAFS aggregate......Page 200
  7.3.1 Application of steel slags......Page 203
  7.3.2 Application of stainless steel slags......Page 204
 7.4 Geopolymer synthesised by the activation of steel slags......Page 205
  7.4.2 Possible use of steel slags in the manufacturing of geopolymers......Page 206
  7.4.3 Future research lines of steel slags in geopolymer production......Page 208
 References......Page 209
 8.1 Introduction......Page 214
 8.2 Mollusc shells......Page 215
  8.3.2 Experiences in the use of mollusc shells as aggregates......Page 217
  8.4.1 Hardened density......Page 220
  8.4.2 Fresh state......Page 221
  8.4.3 Compressive strength......Page 222
  8.4.5 Concrete microstructure......Page 224
 8.5 Concluding remarks......Page 226
 References......Page 227
 9.1 Introduction......Page 230
   9.2.1.1 Cement......Page 231
   9.2.1.2 Supplementary cementitious materials......Page 234
   9.2.1.3 Admixtures......Page 237
   9.2.1.4 Aggregates......Page 238
   9.2.1.5 Water......Page 239
   9.2.1.6 Energy......Page 240
   9.2.1.7 Waste......Page 241
  9.2.2 Concrete sustainability through recycled aggregates......Page 242
 9.3 Life cycle assessment: considerations for recycled aggregate concrete......Page 248
  9.3.1 Goal and scope......Page 249
   9.3.1.1 Functional unit......Page 250
   9.3.1.2 System boundaries......Page 251
   9.3.1.3 LCA approaches/types......Page 253
  9.3.3 Impact analysis......Page 256
  9.3.4 Interpretation......Page 257
 9.4 Conclusions......Page 261
 References......Page 267
 10.1 Introduction......Page 280
  10.3.1 Selection of the functional unit......Page 281
  10.3.2 System boundaries: attributional versus consequential modelling......Page 282
   10.3.3.1 Chemistry of carbonation process......Page 284
   10.3.3.2 Calculation of CO2 uptake during use and end-of-life phase......Page 285
   10.3.3.4 CO2 uptake results from research......Page 287
 10.4 Case study: reinforced concrete floor slab in residential building made of conventional and recycled aggregate concrete......Page 289
   10.4.1.2 Materials......Page 290
   10.4.1.3 Structural analysis and design of RC floor slab......Page 291
  10.4.2 LCA model......Page 297
  10.4.3 Life cycle impact assessment......Page 301
  10.5.1 Quality of recycled concrete aggregate......Page 304
  10.5.2 Durability......Page 305
  10.5.3 LCI modelling approach......Page 306
  10.5.4 CO2 uptake......Page 307
 10.6 Conclusions......Page 309
 References......Page 310
 11.1 Introduction......Page 316
  11.2.1 LCA analyses and balanced comparisons......Page 317
  11.2.2 Definition of the concepts of declared unit and functional unit......Page 318
  11.2.5 Application to concrete......Page 319
  11.3.1 Recycled aggregates......Page 320
  11.3.3 Influence on the mechanical properties of concrete......Page 322
 11.4 Methodology for the definition of equivalent functional unit for recycled aggregate concrete......Page 323
   11.4.1.3 Depths of carbonation and chloride penetration......Page 324
  11.4.2 Simplified approach (based on the compressive strength classes only)......Page 325
  11.5.1 Practical rules to compare different properties of RAC and NAC......Page 326
   11.5.2.3 Bending ultimate limit state......Page 328
  11.6.2 K as function of long-term deflection SLS......Page 329
  11.6.3 K as a function of bending ULS......Page 331
 11.7 Application to slabs and validation of the method: case studies......Page 332
  11.7.1 Missing data......Page 334
  11.7.2 Case studies......Page 335
  11.7.3 Exclusions and limitations......Page 336
  11.8.1 State-of the art on the comparison between RCA and NCA......Page 339
   11.8.2.1 Life cycle inventory......Page 341
   11.8.2.4 Environmental assessment results......Page 342
 11.9 Concluding remarks......Page 345
 References......Page 346
 Further reading......Page 350
  12.1.1 Legal regulations for environmental assessment of recycled aggregate concrete......Page 352
  12.1.2 Assessment of potential environmental risk. Main factors to consider......Page 354
  12.1.3 Concepts and mechanisms which control release......Page 356
 12.2 Leaching characteristics of unbound recycled materials......Page 357
  12.2.1 Leaching behaviour of powdered recycled materials......Page 359
  12.2.2 Leaching behaviour of fine recycled materials......Page 360
  12.2.3 Leaching behaviour of coarse recycled materials......Page 361
  12.2.4 Applications based on environmental behaviour......Page 362
 12.3 Leaching assessment of recycled concrete......Page 363
  12.3.1 Concrete degradation by water effects......Page 364
  12.3.2 Leaching of concrete and cement-based materials......Page 365
  12.3.3 Evaluation of leaching behaviour on different recycled concrete types......Page 366
  12.3.4 Standards and methods of leaching tests of concrete and cement-based materials......Page 367
  12.3.5 Leaching limits in the assessment of Recycled Concrete: testing the tank......Page 370
  12.3.6 Previous leaching studies in recycled aggregate concrete......Page 371
 12.4 pH-dependent leaching of constituents in concrete......Page 372
 12.5 Conclusion......Page 373
 References......Page 374
 Further reading......Page 378
  13.1.1 Necessity to develop low-carbon cement and concrete......Page 380
  13.1.2 Alkali-activated materials (AAMs): a definition......Page 381
  13.1.3 Role of precursors and alkaline activators......Page 382
  13.1.4 Performance of AAMs cement and concrete: rheology, mechanical behaviour and durability......Page 383
 13.2 New precursors and activators from wastes......Page 384
   13.2.1.1 Metallurgical activities......Page 385
   13.2.1.2 Ceramic wastes......Page 395
   13.2.1.3 Urban wastes......Page 403
   13.2.1.4 Construction and demolition wastes......Page 404
   13.2.1.5 Industrial wastes......Page 407
   13.2.1.6 Agro-industrial wastes......Page 410
   13.2.2.1 Alkaline activators with partial replacement of the synthetic reagent......Page 414
  13.2.3 Alkaline activators with total replacement of the synthetic reagent......Page 417
  13.3.1 Composition and content of alkali-activated slag mortars and concrete (AASm and AASc)......Page 420
  13.3.2 Rheology of new mortars and concrete......Page 422
  13.3.3 Mechanical behaviour: compressive and flexural strengths......Page 426
  13.3.4 Stability (shrinkage) and durability of new alkaline mortar and concrete......Page 428
 13.4 Concluding remarks......Page 429
 References......Page 430
 Further reading......Page 447
 14.1 Introduction......Page 448
  14.2.1 Optical microscopy......Page 449
  14.2.2 Scanning electron microscopy......Page 450
  14.2.4 Atomic force microscopy......Page 452
  14.2.6 Mercury intrusion porosimetry......Page 453
  14.3.1 The microstructure of hydrated cement paste......Page 454
  14.3.2 The microstructure of paste/natural aggregate interfacial transition zone......Page 460
 14.4 Microstructural and morphological features of CDW recycled aggregates......Page 463
 14.5 The microstructure of paste/recycled aggregate interfacial transition zone......Page 465
 14.6 Conclusion......Page 466
 References......Page 467
 15.1 Introduction......Page 476
 15.2 Interfacial transition zone in conventional and recycled concrete......Page 477
  15.3.1 Phases in concrete meso-structural modelling......Page 480
  15.3.2 Prior meso-structural modelling......Page 482
   15.3.2.1 Conventional concrete......Page 483
   15.3.2.2 Recycled concrete......Page 487
  15.3.3 Model proposed to study the meso-structure of concrete bearing recycled ceramic aggregate......Page 489
   15.3.3.2 Model constituents......Page 490
   15.3.3.3 Results......Page 492
 15.4 Conclusions......Page 494
 References......Page 495
 16.1 Introduction......Page 500
   16.2.1.1 RCAs used......Page 502
   16.2.1.3 Determination of CO2 sequestration by RCAs......Page 503
  16.2.2 Influence of various carbonation factors on CO2 uptake of RCAs......Page 505
  16.3.1 Properties of NRCAs by accelerated carbonation......Page 508
  16.3.2 Static compressive strength......Page 510
  16.3.3 Dynamic compressive strength......Page 511
  16.3.5 Microhardness of ITZ of RAC with C-NRCAs......Page 512
  16.3.6 Durability......Page 514
   16.3.6.1 Water absorption values versus porosity of RAC......Page 515
  16.3.7 Performance improvement of RAC prepared with C-NRCAs......Page 517
 Acknowledgement......Page 518
 References......Page 519
 17.1 Introduction......Page 522
 17.2 Methods of identification of sulphur in recycled aggregates......Page 523
  17.3.1 Flexural and compressive strength......Page 525
  17.3.2 Durability......Page 526
 References......Page 529
 18.1 Introduction......Page 532
  18.2.1 Recycled aggregate concrete in buildings......Page 533
  18.2.2 Recycled aggregate concrete in road pavement construction......Page 536
  18.3.4 Japan......Page 541
  18.3.7 The Netherlands......Page 542
  18.3.9 United Kingdom......Page 543
 18.5 Concluding remarks and proposals for the future......Page 544
 References......Page 547
 Further reading......Page 549
 19.1 Introduction......Page 550
  19.3.1 Compressive strength......Page 551
  19.3.3 Modulus of elasticity......Page 553
  19.3.5 Carbonation and chloride ion penetration......Page 554
 19.4 Description of the structural elements......Page 555
 19.5 Design of recycled aggregate concrete elements......Page 557
 19.6 Conclusions......Page 559
 References......Page 560
 20.1 Fundamental reliability concepts......Page 564
  20.2.1 Sources of variability......Page 566
  20.2.2 Variability of concrete properties......Page 567
  20.2.3 Partial safety factors......Page 571
 20.3 Heterogeneity and reliability of RAC......Page 573
  20.4.1 Material variability......Page 574
  20.4.2 Model uncertainties......Page 576
  20.4.3 Reliability analyses......Page 578
  20.5.1 Experimental campaign on the variability of RAC......Page 579
  20.5.2 Reliability analysis of NAC and RAC beams: methodology......Page 584
  20.5.3 Reliability analysis: ultimate limit-state......Page 585
  20.5.4 Reliability analysis: serviceability limit-state......Page 589
 20.6 Concluding remarks......Page 590
 References......Page 591
 Further reading......Page 595
 21.1 Introduction......Page 596
  21.2.1 Road pavement construction......Page 597
  21.2.2 Structural and non-structural building applications......Page 598
  21.3.3 Section Interstate-10 in Houston (Texas), USA......Page 600
  21.3.4 Austrian Salzberg-Vienna A1 concrete motorway......Page 601
  21.3.6 Rabanales bike lane in Córdoba, Spain......Page 602
  21.4.1 Decorative concrete elements in Magdeburg, Germany......Page 603
  21.4.2 Hong Kong Wetland Park......Page 604
  21.4.4 ‘Waldspirale’ building project in Darmstadt, Germany......Page 605
  21.4.5 The environmental building at BRE in Watford, United Kingdom......Page 606
  21.4.7 Samwoh eco-green building in Singapore......Page 607
 References......Page 608
Index......Page 614
Back Cover......Page 634