New and Future Developments in Catalysis: Catalytic Biomass Conversion

Front Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Introduction......Page 10
Contributors......Page 12
1.1 Introduction......Page 14
1.2.1.1 Hydrogenation of Glucose......Page 15
1.2.1.2 Hydrogenation of Fructose......Page 17
1.2.1.3 Hydrogenation of Xylose and Furfural......Page 18
1.2.1.4 Hydrogenation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural......Page 19
1.2.1.6 Hydrogenation of Succinic Acid......Page 20
1.2.1.8 Hydrogenation of Arabinonic Acid......Page 21
1.2.2.1 Hydrogenation and Isomerization of CC Bonds......Page 22
1.2.2.2 Hydrogenation of Fatty Esters to Fatty Alcohols......Page 23
1.2.3 Metal Catalysts for the Conversion of Wood Derivatives......Page 24
1.3.1 Hydrogenolysis/Dehydroxylation of Sorbitol and Xylitol......Page 26
1.3.2.1 Glycerol to 1,2-Propanediol (1,2-PDO)......Page 27
1.3.3 Metal Catalysts for One-Pot Conversion of Polysaccharides......Page 29
1.4.1 Design of Metal Catalysts......Page 31
1.4.2 Oxidation of Glucose......Page 32
1.4.3 Oxidation of Lactose......Page 33
1.4.4 Oxidation of Glycerol......Page 34
1.5 Concluding Remarks and Prospects......Page 36
References......Page 37
2.1 Introduction......Page 42
2.2.1 Applications of Syngas......Page 44
2.2.3 Direct Production of Pure Hydrogen from Cellulose......Page 45
2.3.1 Significance of Sorbitol Synthesis......Page 46
2.3.2 History of the Hydrolytic Hydrogenation of Cellulose......Page 47
2.3.3 Reaction Mechanism for the Hydrolytic Hydrogenation of Cellulose......Page 48
2.3.4.1 Pretreatment of Cellulose......Page 49
2.3.4.2 Design of Solid Catalysts......Page 50
2.3.4.3 Utilization of Homogeneous Catalysts......Page 52
2.3.5 Hydrolytic Hydrogenation of Hemicellulose......Page 53
2.4.1 Application and Synthesis of Ethylene Glycol......Page 54
2.5.1 Significance of Glucose Synthesis......Page 56
2.5.2 Hydrolysis of Cellulose by Solid Sulfonic Acids......Page 57
2.5.5 Usage of Ionic Liquids for the Hydrolysis of Cellulose......Page 58
2.6.1 Synthesis of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and Levulinates......Page 59
2.7.1 Current Application of Lignin......Page 60
2.7.2 Catalytic Synthesis of Chemicals from Lignin Derivatives......Page 61
References......Page 62
3.1 Introduction......Page 66
3.2 Conversion of Fructose to 5-HMF......Page 67
3.2.1 Catalysts......Page 69
3.2.2 Reaction Solvents......Page 70
3.2.3 Reaction Conditions......Page 71
3.2.5 Stabilization of 5-HMF in Solvents......Page 72
3.3 Conversion of Glucose to 5-HMF......Page 73
3.4 Conversion of Cellulose to 5-HMF......Page 79
3.6 Summary and Prospective......Page 81
References......Page 82
4.1 Introduction......Page 86
4.2.1 Production of Propanediols from Polyols......Page 89
4.3 Sugars to Lactates......Page 93
4.3.1 Conversion of Triose Sugars to Lactates Using Zeolites......Page 94
4.3.2 Conversion of Higher Sugars to Lactates......Page 95
4.4 Utilization of the Lignin Fraction......Page 97
4.4.1 Lignin Streams from Paper Mills and Biorefineries......Page 98
4.4.2 Upgrading of the Lignin Streams......Page 100
References......Page 101
5.1 Introduction......Page 104
5.2 Lignocellulosic Feedstock as Raw Material for Comprehensive Levulinic Acid and Furfural Production......Page 105
5.3.1 Levulinic Acid......Page 109
5.3.3 Furfural......Page 110
5.3.1.1 Levulinic Acid Synthesis from Hexosanes......Page 111
5.3.1.2 Furfural Production from Pentosanes......Page 113
5.3.1.3 Levulinic Acid and Furfural Contemporary Production by the Biofine Process......Page 115
5.4 Fuels and Fuel Components from Levulinic Acid and Furfural......Page 116
5.4.2 2-Methyl Tetrahydrofuran (MTHF)......Page 117
5.4.4 Valeric Acid Esters......Page 118
5.4.5 Pentenoic Acid Esters......Page 120
5.5 Conclusion......Page 121
References......Page 122
6.2 The Biomass Problem......Page 128
6.3 Biological Production of Renewable Fuels from Cellulosic Biomass......Page 131
6.4 Synthetic Biology......Page 132
6.5.1 Chassis 1. S. cerevisiae......Page 133
6.5.2 Chassis 2. Engineered Ethanologenic Enteric Bacteria......Page 136
6.5.3 Chassis 3. B. subtilis......Page 138
6.6 “Advanced” Biofuels......Page 139
6.8 The Way Forward......Page 142
6.9 Conclusions......Page 144
References......Page 145
7.1 Introduction......Page 154
7.2 Current Conventional Hybrid Plant Breeding Schemes......Page 158
7.3.1 Embryo Rescue for Recovery of Wide Crosses......Page 161
7.3.2 Bridge Intermediates as Breeding Tools......Page 164
7.3.3 The Importance of Genomics-Assisted Breeding and Wide Crosses for New Hybrid Plant Development......Page 166
7.3.4 The Use of Genetically Modified Plants for Recovery of Non-Genetically Modified Hybrids from Wide Crosses......Page 167
7.4.1 Seed-Based Hybrid Systems for Gene Confinement of GM Bioenergy Crops......Page 175
7.4.3 Total Sterility Mechanisms for Production of GM Bioenergy Crops......Page 176
7.5 Conclusions......Page 177
References......Page 178
8 An Introduction to Pyrolysis and Catalytic Pyrolysis: Versatile Techniques for Biomass Conversion......Page 186
8.1.1 Slow Pyrolysis......Page 187
8.1.3 Fast Pyrolysis......Page 188
8.2 Pyrolysis Reactor Design......Page 189
8.3.2 Bio-Oil......Page 190
8.3.3 Biogas......Page 194
8.4.1 Lignocellulose......Page 195
8.4.1.2 Hemicellulose......Page 196
8.4.3 Other Biomass Types......Page 197
8.5 Mechanisms of Biomass Pyrolysis......Page 200
8.5.2 Hemicellulose Pyrolysis Mechanisms......Page 201
8.5.3 Pyrolysis Mechanisms of Lignin......Page 202
8.5.4 Triglyceride Pyrolysis Mechanisms......Page 203
8.6 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Biomass......Page 204
8.6.1.1.1 ZSM-5-Mediated Catalytic Pyrolysis of Glucose—A Model for Cellulose......Page 206
8.6.1.1.4 ZSM-5-, Al2O3-, and Al-SBA-15-Promoted Catalytic Pyrolysis of Herb Residue Wastes......Page 207
8.6.1.3 Comparative Catalytic Pyrolysis Studies Involving ZSM-5- and MCM-41-Type Catalysts......Page 208
8.6.1.4 Aromatic Product Formation During Zeolite-Mediated Catalytic Pyrolysis......Page 209
8.6.2 Metal Oxide Catalysts......Page 210
8.6.2.3 Oxide-Promoted Catalytic Pyrolysis of Pine......Page 211
8.6.3.2 d-Block Metal-Modified MCM-41 Materials......Page 212
8.6.4 Self-Catalyzing Biomass Pyrolysis......Page 213
8.7 Concluding Remarks......Page 214
References......Page 215
9.1 Introduction......Page 222
9.2 Transesterification Reaction for Biodiesel Production......Page 224
9.3.1 Catalyst......Page 225
9.3.2 Renewable Biological Sources for Triglycerides......Page 227
9.3.3 Heating Sources......Page 229
9.3.4 Type of Alcohol and Molar Ratio of Oil/Alcohol......Page 232
9.4 Two-Stage Method for Biodiesel Production......Page 233
9.5 One-Stage Method for Biodiesel Production......Page 234
9.6 Analysis of the FAME Produced from Different Feed-Stocks......Page 235
References......Page 237
10.1 Introduction......Page 242
10.2 Advantages of Using Algal Biomass for Biofuel......Page 243
10.3 Algae as Source of Biofuel......Page 244
10.4.1 Biodiesel from Algae......Page 246
10.4.2 Bio-ethanol from Algae......Page 247
10.4.3 Bio-Hydrogen from Algae......Page 248
10.4.5 Recent Developments, Algal Biotechnology, and Synthetic Biology......Page 249
10.5 Algal Biorefinery......Page 251
10.5.2 Integration of Recombinant Protein Production with Algal Biodiesel Production......Page 252
10.5.2.1.2 Present and Future Coproduct Market Analysis......Page 253
10.5.2.2.2 Estimated Value of Products and Coproducts from Plants A, B, and C......Page 254
10.5.2.3.1 General Market Trends of Biodiesel, Algal Meal, and Glycerin from the Three Biorefineries......Page 255
10.5.2.3.2 Recombinant Protein Market Trends......Page 256
10.5.2.3.4 Opportunities and Challenges for Protein Therapeutics Production from Algal Biorefineries......Page 258
10.5.3 Integration of Algal Biorefineries with Integrated Renewable Energy Parks......Page 260
10.5.4.4 Carbon Efficacy and GHG Reduction......Page 261
References......Page 262
11 Heterogeneous Catalysts for Biomass Conversion......Page 266
11.1 Zeolites......Page 267
11.2 Mesoporous Materials......Page 269
11.3 Metal Oxides......Page 272
11.4 Basic Rare Earth Layered Materials for Biodiesel Production......Page 276
11.5 Supported Metals and Ion-Exchanged Resins......Page 280
11.6 Outlook......Page 281
References......Page 282
12.1 Introduction......Page 284
12.2 Sources and Properties of Various Biomass......Page 285
12.3.1 Biodiesel Reactions and Catalysts......Page 287
12.3.2 Fermenting Sugars to Butanol......Page 290
12.4.1 Classical Methods of Biodiesel Production—Batch with Homogeneous Catalysts......Page 292
12.4.2 Continuous Process for Biodiesel Production......Page 293
12.4.3 A Continuous Liquid/Liquid Reactor/Separator......Page 294
12.4.4 Biodiesel with Heterogeneous Catalysts......Page 298
12.4.5 Fermentation Processes and the Use of Bio-Catalysts......Page 302
12.5 Environmental Concerns for Biomass Conversion......Page 303
Acknowledgment......Page 305
References......Page 306
13.1 Introduction......Page 310
13.2 Overview......Page 311
13.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion and Food Scraps......Page 314
13.3.2 Anaerobic Digestion of Food Scraps in North America......Page 315
13.4.1 Study Area......Page 316
13.4.2 Data Preparation and Suitability Analysis......Page 317
13.4.3 Potential Locations for AD Systems and the Supply Sites: Two Scenarios......Page 318
13.4.4 Location-Allocation Model13......Page 320
13.4.5 Results......Page 321
13.4.6 25,000 t/y Single Facility......Page 322
13.4.7 Multiple Facilities—WWTFs......Page 324
13.5.1 Assumptions and Results: Financial Performance......Page 327
13.5.2 Assumptions and Results: Environmental Analysis......Page 329
13.5.3 Assumptions and Results: Economic Impact Analysis......Page 330
13.6 Conclusions......Page 332
References......Page 333
14.1 Introduction......Page 338
14.2 Biofuels......Page 339
14.3.1 Global......Page 340
14.4 Bioethanol as fuel......Page 341
14.5 Lignocellulosic biomass......Page 345
14.6 Unlocking Fermentable Sugars From Cellulosic Biomass......Page 347
14.7 Requirement of the Fungal Cellulase Complex......Page 350
14.8.1 Fungi......Page 354
14.8.2 Mesophilic Bacteria......Page 357
14.8.3 Thermophilic Bacteria......Page 360
14.9 Higher Alcohols......Page 365
14.10 Biodiesel......Page 367
14.11 Other Potential Biofuels......Page 374
14.12 Commercial Developments......Page 375
14.13 US Government Initiatives......Page 376
14.14 Final Comments......Page 377
References......Page 378
15.1 Introduction......Page 384
15.2 Sugar Platform......Page 387
15.3 Biodiesel......Page 390
15.4 Bio-Oil and its Upgrading......Page 393
15.5 Future Developments in Catalysis for Biomass Conversion......Page 394
15.5.1 Screening and Selection of Catalyst......Page 395
15.5.3 Computational Modeling......Page 396
15.5.4 Catalytic Biomass Conversion Reactor......Page 397
References......Page 398
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