Neurology in Migrants and Refugees

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Part I: Introductory Testimonies
	1: Testimony: The Trauma of Migration. Considerations from a First-Line Doctor in Lampedusa
		References
	2: Migration and Poetry
Part II: Historical, Geography, and Health Problems of Migration
	3: History of Migration
		3.1	 Migrant History
		3.2	 Late Pleistocene Innovations in Migration
		3.3	 Variations in Holocene Migration
		3.4	 Anthropocene Magnification of Migration
		3.5	 Future Changes in Migration
		3.6	 Conclusion: Functions of Migration
		References
	4: Migration Across History
		4.1	 Migration in Deep Time
		4.2	 Approaches to the Study of Migration
		4.3	 Migration and Mobility to the Eighteenth Century
		4.4	 Nineteenth-Century Migration Systems
		4.5	 Mass Refugee Generation in the Twentieth Century
		4.6	 Migration After the 2008 Speculation Crisis
		4.7	 Conclusion: Transcultural Societal Studies
		References
	5: History of North African Migration to Europe: The Case of Morocco
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Prehistory
		5.3	 History
		5.4	 The Protectorate Period
		5.5	 Contemporary Migrations
		5.6	 A Particular Migration: Moroccan Jewish Migration
		5.7	 Migration in France
		5.8	 Migration to the United Kingdom
		5.9	 Migration to Italy
		5.10	 Moroccans from Spain
		5.11	 Student Migration
		5.12	 Female Migration
		5.13	 Aging in Migration
		5.14	 Illegal Migration
		5.15	 Morocco, Country of Emigration
		5.16	 Geopolitics of Migration in Morocco
		5.17	 Conclusion
		Annex 1
		Annex 2
		References
	6: Migration, Environment and Climate Change
		6.1	 Introduction
		6.2	 Environmental Stressors and Migrations
			6.2.1	 The Prehistoric Period
				6.2.1.1	 Migration as an Adaptive Evolutionary Strategy
				6.2.1.2	 The Expansion of the Genus Homo Out of Africa
				6.2.1.3	 Genetic Data on Prehistoric Migrations of Homo Sapiens into and Within Eurasia
			6.2.2	 Historic Events
			6.2.3	 Present Time (Twentieth–Twenty-First Centuries)
				6.2.3.1	 Seasonal Migrations and Nomadic Pastoralism
				6.2.3.2	 Rural/Urban Migrations and Internal Migrations
				6.2.3.3	 Environmental Refugees
		6.3	 Consequences of Migration on Native Populations and the Environment
			6.3.1	 Historical Approach of the Relations Among Newcomers/Natives/Local Environment
				6.3.1.1	 The New World
				6.3.1.2	 The Australian Case
			6.3.2	 Present Time: The Age of Migrations
			6.3.3	 Nutrition Environment and Culinary Traditions: A Lesson from the ALS-PDC
			6.3.4	 Long-Term Destiny of Migrants
		6.4	 Conclusions and Lessons Learned
		References
	7: Child Migration and School Achievement
		7.1	 Introduction
		7.2	 To Go Away: Psychological Implication
		7.3	 Low Income, Cognitive Development and Chronic Stress Living
		7.4	 Social Isolation and Cognitive Development
		7.5	 Language as a Social Organizer
		7.6	 Executive Functions as Moderating Factor Between Socio-economic Disadvantage and School Achievement
		7.7	 From Vulnerability to Resilience
		7.8	 Recommendations on Education Policies Supporting Migrant Children
		7.9	 Conclusion
		References
	8: Barriers to Health for Migrants and Refugees
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Migrants’ Burden of Diseases
			8.2.1	 Migration and Mortality
			8.2.2	 Communicable Diseases
			8.2.3	 Non-communicable Diseases
			8.2.4	 Mental Health
			8.2.5	 Aging Migrants
			8.2.6	 Women and Health
			8.2.7	 Child and Adolescent and Health
		8.3	 Social Determinants of Health
			8.3.1	 Political Determinants of Health
			8.3.2	 Cultural Determinants of Health
			8.3.3	 Migration as Social Determinant of Health
			8.3.4	 Racism as Determinant of Health
			8.3.5	 Data Collection to Identify Determinants of Health
		8.4	 Migration and Human Rights
			8.4.1	 The Right of Migrants to Health
			8.4.2	 Ensuring Limits to Health Restrictions on Entry
			8.4.3	 Migrants Detention, Human Rights, and Health
			8.4.4	 Labor Migrants and Human Rights
		8.5	 Recommendations
		8.6	 Conclusion
		References
	9: Contribution of Migration and Refugees Research to Neurology and Neurosciences
		9.1	 Introduction
		9.2	 Numbers of Articles Reported by Pubmed on Immigration and Refugees and Neurology and Neurosciences
		9.3	 Neurologists in Training and Education Programs on Immigrant Health
		9.4	 Hosting Health System and Migration
		9.5	 Risk of Different Diseases in Migrants
			9.5.1	 Stroke and Cardiovascular Diseases
			9.5.2	 Dementia
			9.5.3	 Genetic Mutation in Health and in Neurodegenerative Diseases
		9.6	 Migration and the Risk of Multiple Sclerosis
		9.7	 Brain Functional MR Connectivity Changes
		9.8	 Children Migration and Child Refugees
		9.9	 Conclusions
		References
	10: How Can Host Countries Provide Neurological Care to Migrants and Refugees?
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Global Neurological Care
		10.3	 Budgets for Neurological Disorders
		10.4	 Neurological Care
		10.5	 Conclusion
		References
	11: Neurological and Mental Health Problems Among Refugees from South Asia
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 A Brief History of Conflicts and Natural Disasters in South Asia
		11.3	 Defining Refugees, Asylum-Seekers, Internally Displaced Individuals and Migrants
		11.4	 Burden of Refugees and Asylum Seekers, Globally and in South Asia
		11.5	 Internally Displaced Individuals; Global and Regional Burden
		11.6	 Healthcare Challenges of the Forcibly Displaced Populations
		11.7	 Prevalence of Neurological Diseases in Displaced Populations
			11.7.1	 Acute and Infectious Neurological Conditions
			11.7.2	 Change of Focus Towards Chronic Neurological Conditions
		11.8	 Potential Solutions for Providing Neurological Care to Displaced Populations
		11.9	 Mental Health Diseases in Displaced Populations
			11.9.1	 Most Prevalent Mental Health Conditions
			11.9.2	 Factors Contributing to Mental Health Conditions in Forcibly Displaced Individuals
		11.10	 Finding Solutions for Mental Health Conditions
		11.11	 Towards a Better Tomorrow; Improving Health Outcomes in Displaced Populations
		11.12	 Global Health and the Role of International Organizations; Provision of Care, Training, Research, and Advocacy
		11.13	 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Neurological Disorders in Migrants
	12: Neuroinfectious Diseases in Migrants and Refugees
		12.1	 Introduction
		12.2	 Prevalence of Most Frequently Seen and Most Important Infectious Diseases Among Migrants and Refugees
			12.2.1	 Tuberculosis
			12.2.2	 AIDS
			12.2.3	 Antimicrobial-Resistance (AMR) and Migration
			12.2.4	 Hepatitis B and C (HBV and HCV)
			12.2.5	 Tropical Infections
			12.2.6	 The Issue of SARS-CoV2 (COVID-19) Pandemic and Migration
		12.3	 Infectious Diseases of the Nervous System
			12.3.1	 Viral Diseases of the Nervous System
				12.3.1.1	 HIV
			12.3.2	 Bacterial Diseases of the Nervous System
				12.3.2.1	 Central Nervous System (CNS-)Tuberculosis
			12.3.3	 Parasitic Diseases of the Nervous System
			12.3.4	 Fungal Diseases of the Nervous System
		12.4	 Screening First Arrival Migrants to Identify Common Infectious Diseases
		12.5	 Vaccination Among Refugees and Migrants
		12.6	 Conclusion
		References
	13: The Devastating Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Ethnic Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees
		13.1	 Introduction
		13.2	 Coronaviruses
			13.2.1	 SARS-CoV-2 and the COVID-19 Pandemic
		13.3	 Migration and COVID-19
			13.3.1	 External Migration
			13.3.2	 Internal Migration
		13.4	 COVID-19 Among Ethnic Minorities
		13.5	 Conclusions
		References
	14: Cerebrovascular Risk Factors in Migrants and Refugees
		14.1	 Introduction
		14.2	 Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors in Migrants and Refugees
		14.3	 Prevention of Cardiovascular Risk Factors
		14.4	 Conclusion
		References
	15: Stroke in Migrants
		15.1	 Introduction
		15.2	 Epidemiology of Stroke in Migrants
			15.2.1	 Incidence and Prevalence in Migrant Population
		15.3	 Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Specific Causes in Migrant Populations
			15.3.1	 Hypertension
			15.3.2	 Diabetes
			15.3.3	 Dyslipidemia
			15.3.4	 Atrial Fibrillation
			15.3.5	 Other Specific Causes
		15.4	 Socioeconomic Status and Risk of Stroke
		15.5	 Stroke Type and Subtypes
		15.6	 Stroke Severity and Mortality
		15.7	 Stroke Care Access Disparities
		15.8	 Stroke Management in Acute Phase
			15.8.1	 Thrombolysis and Thrombectomy
			15.8.2	 Post Stroke Rehabilitation
			15.8.3	 Secondary Prevention
		15.9	 Conclusion
		References
	16: Multiple Sclerosis in Migrants
		16.1	 Introduction
		16.2	 Methods
		16.3	 Results
			16.3.1	 MS Epidemiology Worldwide, in LMIC and in HIC
			16.3.2	 Migration and Multiple Sclerosis
				16.3.2.1	 Migration from Areas of High Risk of MS to Areas of Lower Risk
					South Africa
					Australia and New Zealand
					USA
					Canary Islands
					Japan
					Sudan
				16.3.2.2	 Migration from Areas of Low Risk of MS to Areas of Higher Risk
					France
					United Kingdom
					Norway
					United States of America
					Canada
				16.3.2.3	 Influence of Age at Migration on Risk of MS
				16.3.2.4	 Risk Change over Generations
					Change in Prevalence/Incidence Rates over Generations
					Change in Age Onset of MS over Generations
					Change in MS Severity over Generations
			16.3.3	 Particularities of MS in LMIC
			16.3.4	 Difficulties in MS Care in LMIC, Migrants and Ethnic Minorities with MS
		16.4	 Discussion
		16.5	 Conclusions
		References
	17: Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders in Migrants
		17.1	 Introduction
		17.2	 Scope of the Migrant and Refugee Populations
		17.3	 What Is NMOSD?
		17.4	 Prevalence of NMOSD
		17.5	 Risk Factors and Relapse Rates for NMOSD in General and for Migrants
		17.6	 Diagnosis of NMOSD
		17.7	 Differential Diagnoses
		17.8	 AQP4 Serology
		17.9	 Treatment of NMOSD
		17.10	 Effects of Race and Migration on NMOSD
		17.11	 Conclusion
		References
	18: Neurological Manifestations of Behçet’s Disease Related to Migration and Ethnicity
		18.1	 Introduction
		18.2	 Epidemiology of BD
			18.2.1	 Geographic Distribution of BD
			18.2.2	 Age and Gender in BD
			18.2.3	 Migration and BD
			18.2.4	 BD, Ethnicity and HLA B51
			18.2.5	 General Manifestations of BD
		18.3	 Neurological Manifestations of BD
			18.3.1	 Epidemiology of Neurological Manifestations of BD
			18.3.2	 Etiopathogenesis and Pathology
			18.3.3	 Clinical Manifestations
				18.3.3.1	 Parenchymal NBD
					*Brainstem Syndrome
					*Psychiatric and Cognitive Disorders
					*Headache
					*Epilepsy
					*Isolated Spinal Cord Involvement
					*Others Rare Manifestations
				18.3.3.2	 Non-parenchymal NBD
					*Cerebral Venous Thrombosis
					*Arterial Neuro-Behçet Syndrome
			18.3.4	 Neuroimaging
			18.3.5	 Differential Diagnosis
				18.3.5.1	 *Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
				18.3.5.2	 *Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder (NMOSD)
				18.3.5.3	 *Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) and Other Vasculitides
				18.3.5.4	 *Sarcoidosis
				18.3.5.5	 *CNS Infections
				18.3.5.6	 *Brainstem Glioma and Primary CNS Lymphoma
				18.3.5.7	 *Others Differential Diagnosis
			18.3.6	 Management of NBD
		18.4	 Conclusion
		References
	19: Headache in Migrants and Refugees
		19.1	 Introduction
		19.2	 A Short History of Headache
		19.3	 Epidemiology of Headache
			19.3.1	 Prevalence
			19.3.2	 Socioeconomics and Cultural Factors
			19.3.3	 Triger and Risk Factors
		19.4	 Migration
		19.5	 Recommendations
		19.6	 Conclusion
		References
	20: Epilepsy in Migrants
		20.1	 Introduction
		20.2	 Definition
		20.3	 Epidemiology
			20.3.1	 Race and Ethnicity
			20.3.2	 Burden of Epilepsy
			20.3.3	 Comorbidities of Epilepsy
		20.4	 Etiologies
			20.4.1	 Structural
			20.4.2	 Metabolic
			20.4.3	 Immune
			20.4.4	 Infection
				20.4.4.1	 Parasitic
				20.4.4.2	 Bacterial
				20.4.4.3	 Viral
			20.4.5	 Genetic
			20.4.6	 Pre-, Peri- and Post-Natal
		20.5	 Challenges
			20.5.1	 Diagnostic Challenges
			20.5.2	 Misdiagnosis
				20.5.2.1	 Seizure Mimics
			20.5.3	 Therapeutic Challenges
		20.6	 Future Perspectives
		20.7	 Conclusion
		References
	21: Movement Disorders in Migrants
		21.1	 Introduction
		21.2	 Parkinson’s Disease
			21.2.1	 Global Burden of PD
			21.2.2	 Geographic Distribution of PD
			21.2.3	 Genetic Variability in PD
			21.2.4	 Clinical Phenotypes of PD Regarding Ethnicity
				21.2.4.1	 Motors Symptoms
				21.2.4.2	 Non-motor Symptoms
			21.2.5	 Disparities in the Treatment of PD
			21.2.6	 PD in Migrants
		21.3	 Functional Movement Disorders
		21.4	 Tardive Dyskinesia
		21.5	 Conclusion
		References
	22: Cross-Cultural Cognitive Examination in Aging Migrants
		22.1	 Introduction
		22.2	 Cognitive Disorders in Aging Migrants
			22.2.1	 Prevalence of Cognitive Disorders in Aging Migrants
			22.2.2	 Risk Factors Associated with Cognitive Disorders in Migrants
			22.2.3	 Help-Seeking and Access to Services Among Aging Migrants
		22.3	 Barriers to Clinical Interview in Aging Migrants
			22.3.1	 Cognitive Examination with an Interpreter
		22.4	 Challenges in Cognitive Testing in Aging Migrants
			22.4.1	 Influence of Culture
				22.4.1.1	 Cultural Values
				22.4.1.2	 Culture-Dependent Test Elements
				22.4.1.3	 Acculturation
			22.4.2	 Influence of Language
				22.4.2.1	 Cognitive Testing with an Interpreter
				22.4.2.2	 Language Influences on Cognitive Test Performance
				22.4.2.3	 Bilingualism
			22.4.3	 Influence of Education
				22.4.3.1	 Education Influences on Cognitive Test Performance
				22.4.3.2	 Illiteracy
				22.4.3.3	 Test-Wiseness
		22.5	 Methods for Cross-Cultural Cognitive Examination in Aging Migrants
			22.5.1	 Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE)
			22.5.2	 Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS)
			22.5.3	 Multicultural Cognitive Examination (MCE)
			22.5.4	 Cross-Cultural Dementia Screening (CCD)
			22.5.5	 European Cross-Cultural Neuropsychological Test Battery (CNTB)
		22.6	 Conclusion
		References
	23: Dementia in Aging Migrants
		23.1	 Introduction
		23.2	 Epidemiology of Dementia and Cognitive Disorders in Migrants
		23.3	 Use of Dementia Resources and Facilities
		23.4	 Clinical Assessment of Cognitive Disorders in Migrants
			23.4.1	 Cognitive Assessment
			23.4.2	 Neuropsychological Assessment
			23.4.3	 Functional Assessment
			23.4.4	 Biomarker Assessment
		23.5	 Differential Diagnosis
		23.6	 Conclusions
		References
	24: Anxiety and Depression in Migrants
		24.1	 Introduction
		24.2	 Depression and Anxiety in Migrants
			24.2.1	 Prevalence of Depression and Anxiety in Migrants
			24.2.2	 Depression and Anxiety: Risk Factors
			24.2.3	 Cultural Differences in Depression and Anxiety Among Migrants
			24.2.4	 Treatment of Depression and Anxiety
				24.2.4.1	 Culturally Sensitive Treatment: The Professional’s Role
				24.2.4.2	 Medication and Psychotherapy
					A Typical Case
		24.3	 Suicide
		24.4	 WHO Recommendations on Depression, Anxiety and Suicide
		24.5	 Conclusion
		References
	25: Somatization and Functional Disorders in Migrants and Refugees
		25.1	 Introduction
		25.2	 Current Concepts
		25.3	 Functional Neurological Disorders (FND)
			25.3.1	 Phenomenology
				25.3.1.1	 Functional Weakness (FW)
				25.3.1.2	 Functional Movement Disorders (FMD)
				25.3.1.3	 Psychogenic Non-epileptic Seizures (PNES)
				25.3.1.4	 FND with Sensory Manifestations
				25.3.1.5	 Other Functional Disorders
			25.3.2	 Diagnosis of FD
		25.4	 Somatization and FND in Migrants
			25.4.1	 Frequency of Somatization in Migrants
			25.4.2	 Risk Factors for Somatization in Migrants
				25.4.2.1	 Role of Immigration
				25.4.2.2	 Socio-demographic Factors
				25.4.2.3	 Cultural Factors
			25.4.3	 Phenomenological Differences in Somatization and FND Among Migrants
		25.5	 Management of Somatization and FD
		25.6	 Conclusion
		References
	26: Palliative Care in Migrants
		26.1	 Introduction
		26.2	 What Is Palliative Care?
			26.2.1	 The Overarching Concept of PC Is the WHO Definition (WHO)
		26.3	 The Concept of Disease and Death
			26.3.1	 Death and Dying
		26.4	 Age Group of Migrants and Their Families
		26.5	 Expectation of Migrants
		26.6	 Palliative Care in Neurological Diseases
			26.6.1	 Selected Examples of Neurological Diseases
				26.6.1.1	 Stroke
				26.6.1.2	 Neuro-oncology
				26.6.1.3	 Degenerative Diseases
				26.6.1.4	 Dementia
			26.6.2	 Motor Neuron Disease: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (MND/ALS)
			26.6.3	 Neuromuscular Diseases (NM)
				26.6.3.1	 Trauma
				26.6.3.2	 Minimal Conscious and Vegetative State and Brain Death
			26.6.4	 Mental Disease/Psychiatry (Trachsel et al. 2019)
		26.7	 Access to Palliative Care
			26.7.1	 Unequal Opportunities for Migrants to Access PC (Table 26.1)
		26.8	 Is Our View on the Problems Accurate?
		26.9	 Conclusion and Outlook
		References
Part IV: Future Developments
	27: Migrants’ Health, the Sustainable Development Goals, and the COVID-19 Pandemic
		27.1	 Introduction
		27.2	 Migrants’ Health
		27.3	 Achieving Migrant Health Through the Implementation to the SDGs
			27.3.1	 SDG 1 (No Poverty)
			27.3.2	 SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being)
			27.3.3	 SDG 5 (Gender Equality)
			27.3.4	 SDG 8 “Decent Work and Economic Growth”
			27.3.5	 SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities)
			27.3.6	 SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities)
			27.3.7	 SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions)
			27.3.8	 SDG 17 (Paternership for the Goals)
		27.4	 COVID-19 Impact on the Sustainable Development Goals and in Migrants’ Health
		27.5	 Conclusion
		References