Neural Plasticity and Disorders of the Nervous System

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Acknowledgements......Page 9
Abbreviations......Page 10
Introduction......Page 13
1.1 Advantages to the organism from neural plasticity......Page 19
1.1.1 Postnatal development......Page 20
1.1.2 Adaptation to changing demands......Page 23
1.1.3 Compensation for damage and injury......Page 24
1.2 Disadvantages to the organism from neural plasticity......Page 25
1.3 Promoters of neural plasticity......Page 27
1.4 Basis for neural plasticity......Page 29
Input......Page 30
Presynaptic activation......Page 31
Efficacy of synapses......Page 32
Sensitization......Page 33
Availability of neural transmitters......Page 36
Other functional changes from expressions of neural plasticity......Page 37
Sprouting of dendrites and axons......Page 38
Activation of new brain regions (“re-wiring” or re-routing)......Page 39
Remapping the CNS......Page 43
1.5 Diagnosis and treatment of disorders caused by expression of neural plasticity......Page 44
References......Page 45
Introduction......Page 54
2.1 Symptoms and signs of disorders of nerves......Page 55
Trauma......Page 56
Demyelinating disorders......Page 58
2.2 Anatomy and physiology of nerves......Page 59
2.2.1 Sensory nerves......Page 61
2.2.3 Autonomic nerves......Page 62
2.3.1 Focal injuries......Page 63
2.3.2 Regeneration of injured nerves......Page 66
2.3.3 Symptoms and signs of focal nerve injuries......Page 67
2.3.4 Mechanosensitivity of injured nerves......Page 68
2.4.2 Nerves as impulse generators......Page 69
2.4.3 Ephaptic transmission......Page 70
2.4.5 Change in discharge pattern......Page 71
2.4.6 Effect of change in conduction velocity: the importance of spatial dispersion......Page 72
2.4.8 The role of neural plasticity......Page 75
The cause of expression of neural plasticity......Page 76
References......Page 77
Introduction......Page 80
3.1.1 Sensory organs......Page 81
3.1.3 Receptors......Page 82
3.1.4 Sensory nerves......Page 83
Ascending sensory pathways......Page 84
Classical ascending pathways......Page 89
Non-classical ascending pathways......Page 93
3.1.6 Olfaction and gustation......Page 96
Somatotopic organization......Page 97
3.1.8 Parallel processing......Page 99
3.1.9 Stream segregation......Page 100
Reticular formation......Page 102
Limbic system......Page 103
3.1.11 Organization of sensory systems is dynamic......Page 105
3.2 Disorders of sensory systems......Page 106
3.2.1 Disorders of the conductive apparatus......Page 108
3.2.2 Disorders that primarily affect sensory receptors......Page 109
Hearing......Page 110
Noise induced hearing loss......Page 112
Ototoxic drugs......Page 114
Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis)......Page 115
Ménière’s disease......Page 117
Somatosensory system......Page 119
3.3 Disorders of the sensory nervous system......Page 120
3.3.1 Disorders of sensory nerves......Page 121
3.3.2 Trauma and other insults to CNS structures......Page 123
3.3.3 Phantom sensations......Page 124
Objective tinnitus......Page 125
Subjective tinnitus......Page 126
Phantom limb syndrome......Page 128
3.4.1 Disorders of sensory cells......Page 129
Noise induced hearing loss......Page 130
3.4.2 Disorders related to sensory nerves and the CNS......Page 133
3.4.3 The role of neural plasticity......Page 135
Hyperactive disorders and phantom sensations......Page 136
Subjective tinnitus......Page 137
Sensorimotor interactions......Page 142
Changes in processing of sensory information......Page 143
Abnormal cross-modal interaction......Page 145
The role of non-classical ascending sensory pathways......Page 146
References......Page 147
Introduction......Page 161
4.1.1 Classification of pain......Page 163
Somatic pain......Page 167
Visceral pain......Page 168
Muscle pain......Page 169
Pain from the nervous system......Page 170
Itch sensation......Page 171
4.2 Organization of normal pain systems......Page 172
Innervation of pain receptors......Page 173
4.2.2 Visceral pain......Page 174
Neural circuitry in the spinal cord......Page 175
Trigeminal system......Page 178
Visceral pain......Page 179
The spinothalamic tract......Page 180
Other ascending tracts......Page 183
Ascending for visceral pain pathways......Page 184
Differences between nociceptive and visceral pain circuits......Page 185
Rostral ventromedial medulla pathway......Page 187
Dorsolateral pontomesencephalic tegmentum pathways......Page 188
4.2.6 The vagus nerve......Page 189
4.3.1 Spinal cord processing of pain signals......Page 192
Peripheral control of pain......Page 193
Central control of pain......Page 194
Role of the sympathetic nervous system......Page 197
4.3.2 Supraspinal processing of pain......Page 198
4.4 Pathophysiology of pain......Page 199
4.4.2 Pathology of nerves......Page 200
Nerve compression and entrapment......Page 201
Deafferentiation pain......Page 203
4.4.3 Muscle pain......Page 204
Muscle tension as a cause of pain......Page 205
Myofascial pain......Page 208
Fibromyalgia......Page 209
CNS pain......Page 211
Central neuropathic pain......Page 212
Reorganization of central pain pathways......Page 214
Change in neural processing......Page 216
The “wind up” phenomenon and temporal integration......Page 221
Hyperalgesia......Page 222
Allodynia......Page 224
Involvement of the sympathetic nervous system......Page 226
4.4.5 Visceral pain......Page 229
Referred pain......Page 230
4.4.6 Itch......Page 231
4.5 Treatment of central neuropathic pain......Page 232
4.5.2 Stimulation of the dorsal column......Page 233
4.5.5 Stimulation of the prefrontal cortex and other CNS structures......Page 234
4.5.6 Stimulation of the vagus nerve......Page 235
4.5.8 Treatment of itch......Page 236
4.5.10 Placebo effect......Page 238
References......Page 239
Introduction......Page 253
5.1 Disorders of motor systems......Page 254
5.1.1 Paresis and paralysis......Page 257
5.1.2 Dyskinesia (hypokinesis and hyperkinesis)......Page 258
Spinal cord disorders......Page 259
Traumatic spinal cord injuries......Page 260
Parkinson’s disease......Page 261
Multi-symptom atrophies......Page 262
5.2 General organization of motor systems......Page 263
5.2.1 Upper motoneuron......Page 264
5.2.2 Descending spinal pathways......Page 267
Corticospinal (pyramidal) tract......Page 269
Reticulospinal pathways......Page 273
Vestibular spinal pathways......Page 274
Other descending pathways (norepinephrine-serotonin)......Page 275
5.2.3 Basal ganglia......Page 276
5.2.4 Activation of the primary motor cortex......Page 277
5.2.5 Lower motoneuron (and motoneuron)......Page 280
Spinal reflexes......Page 281
Monosynaptic stretch reflex......Page 282
Reciprocal inhibition......Page 285
Tendon reflex......Page 286
The flexor reflex......Page 287
Renshaw inhibition......Page 288
Long reflex arcs......Page 289
Inter-and intraspinal segmental processing......Page 290
5.2.7 Brainstem control of motor activity......Page 293
Startle and freezing reactions......Page 294
Muscle tone......Page 295
5.2.8 Other descending control of excitability......Page 297
5.2.9 Basal ganglia......Page 302
5.2.10 Cerebellum......Page 305
5.2.11 Control of sexual functions......Page 309
5.3 Pathophysiology of movement disorders......Page 310
5.3.2 Dyskinesia (hypokinesia and hyperkinesia)......Page 311
Spasticity......Page 313
Treatment of spasticity......Page 318
5.3.4 Basal ganglia, cerebellum and cerebral cortex......Page 321
Parkinson’s disease......Page 322
Huntington’s disease......Page 326
Other forms of dystonia......Page 327
Gait and balance disturbances......Page 328
5.3.5 Disorders of the cerebral cortex......Page 329
Complex CNS disturbances......Page 330
5.4 The role of neural plasticity in rehabilitation......Page 331
References......Page 332
Introduction......Page 342
6.1.1 Motor disorders......Page 343
6.1.2 Sensory disorders......Page 345
Hemifacial spasm......Page 346
Hyperkinetic disorders of other cranial nerves......Page 347
Trigeminal neuralgia......Page 348
Neuralgias of other cranial nerves......Page 351
6.1.4 Bilateral cranial nerve disorders......Page 352
6.2.1 Balance disturbances......Page 353
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo......Page 354
Vestibular schwannoma......Page 355
6.3 Anatomy and physiology of cranial nerves......Page 356
6.3.2 Brainstem motonuclei......Page 358
6.3.3 Brainstem reflexes......Page 360
Blink reflex......Page 361
Acoustic middle ear reflex......Page 362
Vestibular sensory organs......Page 363
Neural pathways......Page 365
Vestibular ocular reflex......Page 367
6.4 Pathophysiology of cranial nerves......Page 369
6.4.1 Cranial motor nerves......Page 370
6.4.2 Sensory nerves......Page 371
6.4.3 The “microvascular compression syndrome”......Page 372
Hemifacial spasm......Page 375
Spasmodic torticollis......Page 378
Trigeminal neuralgia......Page 380
Disabling positional vertigo......Page 381
Tinnitus......Page 382
6.5 Pathophysiology of the vestibular system......Page 383
6.5.3 Other disorders of the vestibular nerve and nervous system......Page 385
6.6 Treatment benefits from knowing pathophysiology......Page 386
References......Page 387
B......Page 398
D......Page 399
H......Page 400
I,J,K,L,M......Page 401
P......Page 402
Q,R......Page 403
S......Page 404
T......Page 405
W......Page 406