Neural and metabolic control of macronutrient intake

NEURAL AND METABOLIC CONTROL OF MACRONUTRIENT INTAKE......Page 1
PREFACE......Page 3
THE EDITORS......Page 4
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 5
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 9
CONTENTS......Page 10
SECTION I: EVIDENCE FOR MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION: BASIC MECHANISMS AND STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE REGULATION......Page 14
2 THIRST......Page 15
2.2 VOLUME REGULATION......Page 16
2.3 ANGIOTENSIN......Page 17
4 ANALOGY TO HUNGER......Page 18
5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 20
REFERENCES......Page 21
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 23
2 DECISIONS, DECISIONS......Page 24
3.1 WHEN IS IT EVER SO SIMPLE ?......Page 25
3.3 WHAT ’ S SOS PECIAL ABOUT INDIVIDUAL M ACRONUTRIENTS ?......Page 26
4.2 ARE THEY SELECTING A MACRONUTRIENT OR A MEANS TO AN END ?......Page 27
4.5 IS THERE A RESULT THAT DOESN ’ T FIT ?......Page 28
REFERENCES......Page 29
2 BEHAVIORAL HOMEOSTASIS......Page 31
3.1 BEHAVIORAL EVIDENCE......Page 32
6 COMMON SENSE AND EVOLUTIONARY THEORY......Page 33
7 CAFETERIA-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS......Page 34
9 LEARNING OR INSTINCT IN PROTEIN SELECTION?......Page 35
10.1 REANALYSIS OF THE D ATA OF RICHTER ET AL . 1938......Page 36
11 A CAVEAT......Page 37
REFERENCES......Page 38
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 41
2 THE GEOMETRY OF MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 42
3 IS INTAKE OF A MACRONUTRIENT REGULATED?......Page 43
4 MAKING COMPROMISES WHEN THE INTAKE TARGET......Page 44
5 CHANGES WITH TIME: PHYSIOLOGICAL, DEVELOPMENTAL,......Page 48
6 REGULATORY MECHANISMS......Page 49
8 CONCLUSIONS......Page 51
REFERENCES......Page 52
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 55
1.1 THE 7-DAY DIET DIARY TECHNIQUE......Page 56
2 SHORT-TERM MACRONUTRIENT......Page 57
3 LONG-TERM MACRONUTRIENT......Page 59
3.1 GENETIC INFLUENCES......Page 60
3.2 DELAYED NEGATIVE FEEDBACK......Page 63
4 DISCUSSION......Page 66
REFERENCES......Page 67
CHAPTER 6: MACRONUTRIENT-SPECIFIC HUNGERS AND SATIETIES AND THEIR NEURAL BASES, LEARNT FROM PRE- AND POSTINGESTIONAL EFFECTS OF EATING PARTICULAR FOODSTUFFS......Page 72
1.1 AIMS OF THIS CHAPTER......Page 73
1.2.1.1 OBJECTIVE USES OF APPETITE RATINGS AND INTAKE PARAMETERS......Page 74
1.2.1.2 SATING PROCESSES AND SATED STATES......Page 75
1.2.1.3 SENSORY PREFERENCE AND SENSUAL PLEASURE......Page 76
1.2.2.1 CAUSAL PROCESSES IN INGESTION......Page 77
1.2.2.2 DYNAMICS OF SELECTIVE INGESTION......Page 79
1.3.1 FAILED MODELS OF HUNGERS......Page 80
1.3.1.1 PREFERENCES AND AVERSIONS FOR THE TASTE OF SALT......Page 81
1.3.1.2 FIXED PALATABILITIES AND SATIATING POWERS INHERENT......Page 83
1.3.1.3 REGULATION OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS THROUGH CONTROL......Page 84
1.3.2.1 CONDITIONING OF SENSORY CONTROL OF DIETARY SELECTION AND INTAKE......Page 86
1.3.2.2 LEARNT SENSORY AVERSIONS VS. ORAL METERING......Page 87
2.1.2 AVERSION AND SATIETY......Page 90
2.2 DEPENDENCE OF LEARNT HUNGERS AND SATIETIES ON NUTRITIONALLY SPECIFIC STATES......Page 92
3.1.2 NUTRIENT COMMONALITY ACROSS SENSORY DIVERSITY......Page 93
3.1.3 APPLICATION OF THE CRITERION......Page 94
3.3 PUTATIVE CARBOHYDRATE HUNGER OR SATIETY AND 5HT OR NE......Page 95
3.4 IN SEARCH OF EVIDENCE FOR A FAT-SPECIFIC HUNGER......Page 96
3.5 PROTOCOL FOR EVIDENCE OF MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 97
REFERENCES......Page 98
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 103
2 CONDITIONED FLAVOR PREFERENCE PARADIGMS......Page 104
3.2 CARBOHYDRATES......Page 105
3.3 FATS......Page 107
4 MACRONUTRIENT-SPECIFIC PREFERENCES......Page 109
4.2 CARBOHYDRATE AND FAT......Page 110
6 FLAVOR-NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS......Page 112
REFERENCES......Page 113
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 117
3 RESIDENTIAL LABORATORY STUDIES......Page 118
4 ORAL PRELOADS......Page 120
5 PARENTERAL AND ENTERAL PRELOADS......Page 122
REFERENCES......Page 124
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 126
2.1.2 DOSE AMOUNT AND RATE OF ADMINISTRATION......Page 127
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEST DIET  OR INGESTED PRELOAD......Page 128
2.4 NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND DIET HISTORY......Page 129
3 EFFECTS OF CHO PRELOADS......Page 131
5 EFFECTS OF PROTEIN PRELOADS......Page 132
6.2 POSTINGESTIVE......Page 134
REFERENCES......Page 136
SECTION II: EFFECTS OF METABOLIC PROCESSING ON ENERGY INTAKE AND MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 138
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 139
2 FATE OF DIETARY MACRONUTRIENTS......Page 141
3 REGULATION AND CONTROL OF METABOLISM......Page 142
3.1.1 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM IN SKELETAL MUSCLE......Page 143
3.1.2.1 GLYCOLYSIS AND GLUCONEOGENESIS......Page 144
3.1.2.3 LIVER GLYCOGEN METABOLISM......Page 145
3.2 TISSUE -SPECIFIC AMINO ACID METABOLISM......Page 146
3.3 LIPID METABOLISM......Page 147
3.4 INTEGRATED METABOLISM DURING STARVATION......Page 148
REFERENCES......Page 150
ABSTRACT......Page 151
1 INTRODUCTION: GOALS OF METABOLIC REGULATION......Page 152
2 MEANS BY WHICH THE GOALS OF METABOLIC REGULATION......Page 154
3.1 CARBOHYDRATE AVAILABILITY AND FUEL METABOLISM......Page 157
3.3 ADIPOSITY AND THE ADJUSTMENT OF RQ TO FQ......Page 158
4 WEIGHT MAINTENANCE......Page 161
4.3 MODULATION OF FOOD INTAKE DURING WEIGHT MAINTENANCE......Page 163
5 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BODY FAT CONTENT NEEDED FOR WEIGHT MAINTENANCE......Page 164
6 OBESITY......Page 166
7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 167
REFERENCES......Page 169
CHAPTER 12: CARBOHYDRATE AND FAT METABOLISM, APPETITE, AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR IN HUMANS......Page 173
1.2 LIMITATIONS TO HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION......Page 174
2 THE NUTRIENT BALANCE CONCEPT......Page 175
3.1 WHY SHOULD MACRONUTRIENT METABOLISM ACT AS A POTENT SATIETY SIGNAL ?......Page 176
3.3 METABOLIC FEEDBACK FROM NUTRIENT BALANCE /OXIDATION WILL BE INFLUENCED BY ENERGY BALANCE STATUS......Page 177
4.1.1 FEEDING STUDIES......Page 179
4.1.2 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INFERRED CARBOHYDRATE CHO METABOLISM......Page 180
4.1.4 CARBOHYDRATE STORES AND SUBSEQUENT INTAKE......Page 181
4.1.4.2 IS EXCESS ENERGY INTAKE ON HIGH-FAT DIETS DUE TO A DRIVE......Page 182
4.1.5 GLYCEMIC INDEX AND SATIETY......Page 183
4.1.7 USE OF METABOLIC INHIBITORS......Page 184
4.2.1 FEEDING STUDIES......Page 185
4.2.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFERRED FAT METABOLISM AND SUBSEQUENT......Page 186
4.2.5 DOES TYPE OF FAT INFLUENCE NUTRIENT UTILIZATION, APPETITE,......Page 188
5 THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERING THE COMBINED EFFECTS OF MACRONUTRIENT BALANCE/OXIDATION ON APPETITE AND NUTRIENT INTAKE......Page 189
6 NUTRIENT STORAGE/UTILIZATION AND APPETITE FOR SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS......Page 191
REFERENCES......Page 192
1 METABOLIC CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE: DIFFERENTIAL ACTIVATION OF CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL MECHANISMS BY 2-DEOXY- D -GLUCOSE AND MERCAPTOACETATE......Page 197
1.3 THE BLOOD ?BRAIN BARRIER DEFINES THE FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL METABOLIC RECEPTOR CELLS......Page 198
2 MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION INDUCED BY METABOLIC BLOCKADE......Page 199
2.1 MA DOES NOT S TIMULATE F AT INTAKE......Page 201
2.2 MA STIMULATES PROTEIN INTAKE SELECTIVELY......Page 203
2.3 THE VAGUS NERVE IS INVOLVED IN PROTEIN PREFERENCE INDUCED BY METABOLIC BLOCKADE......Page 204
2.5 2DG MAY ACTIVATE THE SAME NEURAL CIRCUITS THAT CONTROL SPONTANEOUS FEEDING......Page 206
REFERENCES......Page 207
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 211
2.2 PAVLOVIAN OCCASION SETTING......Page 212
3.1 OCCASION SETTING AND ENERGY REGULATION......Page 215
3.2 MACRONUTRIENT R EGULATION : F ATS AND C ARBOHYDRATES......Page 216
4.1 METABOLIC MANIPULATIONS C AN S ELECTIVELY ACTIVATE THE MEMORIES OF PEANUT OIL AND SUCROSE USS......Page 217
4.2 INHIBITORY ASSOCIATIONS AND MACRONUTRIENT REPRESENTATIONS......Page 220
5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS......Page 223
REFERENCES......Page 224
1 OVERVIEW......Page 226
1.1 BACKGROUND......Page 227
2.1 FOOD DEPRIVATION......Page 228
2.3 MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 229
2.5 STARVATION......Page 231
2.7 EXERCISE......Page 232
2.10 NEURAL AND METABOLIC CONTROLS......Page 233
3 OUR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LITERATURE......Page 234
REFERENCES......Page 237
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 240
2.1 ANIMAL STUDIES......Page 241
3 FAT SUBSTITUTES......Page 242
3.2 HUMAN STUDIES OF OLESTRA......Page 243
3.3 SUMMARY......Page 245
4 INHIBITORS OF FAT ABSORPTION......Page 246
REFERENCES......Page 248
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 252
2 THE TASTE PATHWAYS IN PRIMATES......Page 253
5 GUSTATORY RESPONSES IN THE PRIMARY TASTE CORTEX......Page 255
7 PROTEIN TASTE......Page 256
8 THE MOUTH FEEL OF FAT......Page 257
9 EFFECTS OF HUNGER AND SATIETY ON TASTE PROCESSING AT......Page 258
10 THE REPRESENTATION OF FLAVOUR: CONVERGENCE OF OLFACTORY AND TASTE INPUTS......Page 259
12 OLFACTORY AND VISUAL SENSORY-SPECIFIC SATIETY AND THEIR REPRESENTATION IN THE PRIMATE ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX......Page 261
13 THE RESPONSES OF ORBITOFRONTAL TASTE AND OLFACTORY NEURONS TO THE SIGHT AND TEXTURE OF FOOD......Page 263
REFERENCES......Page 264
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 268
2 ROLE OF INTESTINAL VS. GASTRIC MECHANISMS IN MACRONUTRIENT FEEDBACK SIGNALS CONTROLLING FOOD INTAKE......Page 269
3 PATHWAYS AND MECHANISMS BY WHICH SPECIFIC MACRONUTRIENTS REDUCE FOOD INTAKE......Page 270
4 CHOLECYSTOKININ PARTICIPATION IN REDUCTION OF FOOD INTAKE BY INTESTINAL MACRONUTRIENTS......Page 275
5 DIET-INDUCED ALTERATIONS IN SENSITIVITY TO REDUCTION OF FOOD INTAKE BY INTESTINAL MACRONUTRIENT INFUSION......Page 276
6 PARTICIPATION OF INTESTINAL MACRONUTRIENT SIGNALS IN CONTROL OF MEAL PARAMETERS AND MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 278
REFERENCES......Page 279
1 SOURCES OF LIPID IN THE LUMEN OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT......Page 283
3 APOLIPOPROTEIN A-IV AS A SATIETY FACTOR......Page 284
4 SITE OF APO A-IV ACTION......Page 286
5 MECHANISM OF INHIBITION OF FOOD INTAKE BY APO A-IV......Page 288
6 IS APO A-IV A SHORT-TERM SATIETY SIGNAL?......Page 289
7 ROLE OF APO A-IV IN THE LONG-TERM CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE......Page 290
8 REGULATION OF APO A-IV SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION......Page 291
9 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 292
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 293
REFERENCES......Page 294
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 298
2 FEEDING RESPONSE TO ENTEROSTATIN......Page 299
4 DOSE DEPENDENCE OF THE RESPONSE TO ENTEROSTATIN......Page 301
6 FEEDBACK REGULATION OF ENTEROSTATIN SYNTHESIS......Page 302
7 RELATIONSHIP OF ENDOGENOUS SYNTHESIS......Page 303
9.1 PERIPHERAL S ITE OF ACTION......Page 304
9.2 CENTRAL SITE OF ACTION......Page 305
10 BRAIN ENTEROSTATIN......Page 306
11 SUMMARY......Page 307
REFERENCES......Page 308
CHAPTER 21: PORTAL-HEPATIC SENSORS FOR GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS, FATTY ACIDS, AND AVAILABILITY OF OXIDATIVE PRODUCTS......Page 312
2.2 CODING MECHANISM......Page 313
2.3.1 ENERGY INTAKE AND NUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 314
2.3.3 METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS......Page 315
3.1 EVIDENCE FOR T HEIR EXISTENCE......Page 316
3.3.3 METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS......Page 317
4.2 CODING MECHANISM......Page 318
4.3.2 GUT FUNCTION......Page 319
5.1 GLUCOSE INTERMEDIATES......Page 320
6 PERSPECTIVES......Page 321
REFERENCES......Page 322
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 327
2.1 GLUCOSE -RESPONSIVE NEURONS......Page 328
2.3 GLUCOSE -MODULATED R ECEPTOR BINDING......Page 330
3 WHERE IS GLUCOSE SENSED?......Page 331
4.1 GLUCOSE AS A MODULATOR OF FEEDING......Page 332
5 GLUCOSENSING NEURONS AS INTEGRATORS......Page 333
REFERENCES......Page 334
1.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF A MINO A CID RECOGNITION......Page 340
1.2 TIME COURSE OF THE R ESPONSES TO IAA......Page 341
1.3 THE AMINOPRIVIC MODEL......Page 342
2.1.1 ANATOMICAL STUDIES......Page 343
2.1.2 NEUROCHEMICAL SYSTEMS......Page 345
3.1 THE APC......Page 346
4.1 AVERSIONS......Page 348
4.2.1 THE VAGUS NERVE......Page 349
4.2.2 SEROTONIN......Page 350
6 SUMMARY OF BRAIN AREAS ASSOCIATED......Page 351
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 352
REFERENCES......Page 353
SECTION IV: NEURAL INTEGRATION OF SENSORY AND METABOLIC INFORMATION IN THE CONTROL OF MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 359
CHAPTER 24: AN OVERVIEW OF NEURAL PATHWAYS AND NETWORKS INVOLVED IN THE CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE AND SELECTION......Page 360
2.1 IDENTIFICATION OF CONNECTIVITY......Page 361
3 INPUT SENSORY SYSTEMS......Page 362
3.1 INFORMATION CARRIED BY VISUAL AND OLFACTORY CUES......Page 364
3.3 GASTROINTESTINAL AND PORTAL -HEPATIC SENSORY INFORMATION......Page 366
4 INTEGRATIVE SYSTEMS......Page 367
4.2.1. PARALLEL VS. LINEAR PROCESSING......Page 368
4.2.2. PHYLOGENETICALLY OLDER VS. NEWER LAYERS OF PROCESSING......Page 369
4.2.3 FOREBRAIN VS. BRAIN STEM CONTROVERSY: INDIRECT......Page 370
4.3.1. OVERVIEW OF HYPOTHALAMIC ORGANIZATION......Page 371
4.3.2 CONNECTIONS OF SOME IMPORTANT HYPOTHALAMIC NUCLEI......Page 372
4.3.2.1 LATERAL HYPOTHALAMIC AREA LHA INCLUDING PERIFORNICAL AREA......Page 373
4.3.2.2 PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS PVN......Page 374
4.3.2.5 ARCUATE NUCLEUS ARC......Page 375
4.5 AMYGDALA......Page 376
4.6.2 NONDECLARATIVE OR IMPLICIT MEMORY: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING,......Page 377
4.7 “PLEASURE LOOP?......Page 378
5 OUTPUT SYSTEMS......Page 379
5.1 LOCOMOTOR AND OROMOTOR CONTROL: THE TRANSLATION OF MOTIVATION INTO ACTION......Page 380
6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 381
REFERENCES......Page 382
ABSTRACT......Page 387
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 388
2 PEPTIDE INJECTIONS AND NUTRIENT INGESTION......Page 389
3 CIRCULATING HORMONES, HYPOTHALAMIC PEPTIDES, AND NUTRIENT INTAKE......Page 391
4 NUTRIENT METABOLISM AND HYPOTHALAMIC PEPTIDES......Page 393
5 DIETARY NUTRIENTS AND ENDOGENOUS HYPOTHALAMIC PEPTIDES......Page 394
6 POSITIVE NUTRIENT?PEPTIDE?NUTRIENT FEEDBACK LOOP......Page 395
7 HYPOTHALAMIC PEPTIDES AND NUTRIENT INGESTION ACROSS PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES AND STAGES......Page 396
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 397
REFERENCES......Page 398
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 405
2 THE OPIOID SYSTEM AND FAT INGESTION......Page 406
3 THE ROLE OF BASELINE NUTRIENT PREFERENCE......Page 407
4 OPIOIDS AND FOOD REWARD......Page 410
5 WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?......Page 415
6 OPIOID INTERACTIONS WITH BRAIN APPETITE CIRCUITRY......Page 416
8 CONCLUSION......Page 417
REFERENCES......Page 418
ABSTRACT......Page 422
2 5-HT AND FOOD INTAKE......Page 423
4 5-HT, DIET COMPOSITION, AND FOOD CHOICE......Page 424
5 DIET SELECTION IN ANIMAL STUDIES......Page 426
6 FOOD CHOICE IN HUMANS......Page 433
7 5-HT: INTERACTION WITH OTHER MACRONUTRIENT-SPECIFIC......Page 437
8 5-HT AND THE RISK FACTORS FOR OVEREATING......Page 438
REFERENCES......Page 439
1 5-HT AND MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 444
2 CHANGES OF HYPOTHALAMIC 5-HT RELEASE IN RESPONSE TO THE INGESTION OF SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS......Page 445
3 EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON FOOD SELECTION......Page 446
4 EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS ON PERIPHERAL......Page 447
5-HT, INSULIN, AND THE SATIATING EFFECT......Page 448
6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 449
REFERENCES......Page 450
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 452
2.1.1 NPY AND FASTING......Page 453
3 QUALITATIVE ASPECTS......Page 454
3.1 NEUROPEPTIDE Y......Page 455
4 CONCLUSION......Page 457
REFERENCES......Page 458
2 ADIPOSITY SIGNALS......Page 462
2.1 ADIPOSITY S IGNALS AND THE BRAIN......Page 463
2.3 EFFICACY OF A DIPOSITY S IGNALS IN R ATS M AINTAINED ON D IETS OF D IFFERENT FAT CONTENT......Page 464
2.4 ADIPOSITY SIGNALS AND MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 466
4 SUMMARY......Page 467
REFERENCES......Page 468
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 470
2 STRESS AND FOOD INTAKE......Page 471
3 GLUCOCORTICOIDS AND MACRONUTRIENT INTAKE......Page 472
4 STRESS AND MACRONUTRIENT SELECTION......Page 474
5 STRESS AND ALCOHOL INTAKE......Page 479
REFERENCES......Page 480
1 INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM......Page 485
2.1 THREE SEPARATE AND DEDICATED CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR EACH MACRONUTRIENT......Page 486
2.2 NO SEPARATE REGULATION OF MACRONUTRIENT INTAKE......Page 488
3 “SOFT? REGULATION OF MACRONUTRIENT INTAKE......Page 489
4.1 ANIMAL DATA......Page 490
5 POTENTIAL FOR THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION......Page 491
REFERENCES......Page 492