Nanotechnology: Basic Calculations for Engineers and Scientists

NANOTECHNOLOGY......Page 3
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 19
Introduction......Page 21
PART 1: CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES......Page 23
1 Units, Conversion Constants, and Dimensional Analysis......Page 25
1.1 Background on the Metric System......Page 26
1.2 Describe the SI System of Units......Page 28
1.2.1 Seven Base Units......Page 29
1.2.3 SI Multiples and Prefixes......Page 30
1.3 The Conversion Constant g(c)......Page 31
1.4 Unit Conversion Factors: General Approach......Page 32
1.6 Pressure Calculations......Page 33
1.7 Density and Thermal Conductivity......Page 35
1.9 Air Quality Standard......Page 36
1.11 Significant Figures and Scientific Notation......Page 37
1.12 Uncertainty in Measurement......Page 39
2 Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table......Page 41
2.2 The Avogadro Number......Page 43
2.3 Mass and Size of Atoms......Page 44
2.4 Atomic Conversions......Page 45
2.7 Elements......Page 46
2.8 Symbols for Elements......Page 49
2.9 Periodic Table Application......Page 50
2.10 Isotopes......Page 51
3.1 License Plate Sets......Page 53
3.2 Chemical Permutations and Combinations......Page 54
3.4 Mole/Molecule Relationship......Page 56
3.5 Pollutant Chemical Formulas......Page 57
3.7 Limiting and Excess Reactants......Page 58
3.8 Combustion of Chlorobenzene......Page 59
3.9 Metal Alloy Calculation......Page 61
3.10 Chemical Production......Page 62
4.1 Density, Specific Gravity, and Bulk Density......Page 65
4.3 Molality versus Molarity......Page 67
4.4 Molar Relationships......Page 68
4.5 Concentration Conversion......Page 69
4.6 Chlorine Concentration......Page 70
4.7 Trace Concentration......Page 71
4.8 Ash Emission......Page 72
4.9 Dilution Factor......Page 73
4.11 Flue Gas Analysis......Page 74
4.12 pH......Page 75
5 Particle Size, Surface Area, and Volume......Page 77
5.1 Sphere, Cube, Rectangular Parallelepiped, and Cylinder......Page 78
5.3 Polygons......Page 79
5.5 Cones......Page 80
5.7 Area to Volume Ratios......Page 81
5.9 Increase in Sphere Surface Area......Page 82
5.10 Increase in Cube Surface Area......Page 83
6.1 Metals, Polymers, and Ceramics......Page 85
6.3 Crystal Coordination Numbers......Page 86
6.4 Geometry of Metallic Unit Cells......Page 92
6.5 Geometry of Ionic Unit Cells......Page 97
6.6 Packing Factor......Page 100
6.7 Density Calculation......Page 102
6.8 Directions and Planes......Page 105
6.9 Linear Density......Page 110
6.10 Planar Density......Page 112
7 Physical and Chemical Property Estimation......Page 117
7.1 Property Differences......Page 118
7.3 Vapor Pressure......Page 119
7.4 Vapor Pressure Calculation......Page 120
7.5 Heat of Vaporization From Vapor Pressure Data......Page 121
7.6 Critical and Reduced Properties......Page 122
7.7 Estimating Enthalpy of Vaporization......Page 123
7.8 Viscosity......Page 126
7.9 Thermal Conductivity......Page 128
7.10 Thermal Conductivity Application......Page 130
7.11 Nokay Equation and Lydersen’s Method......Page 131
7.12 The Rihani and Doraiswamy Procedure, and the Lee–Kesler Equation......Page 135
References: Part 1......Page 139
PART 2: PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY......Page 141
8.1 Definition of Particulates......Page 143
8.2 Dust, Smoke, and Fumes......Page 144
8.5 Dust Explosions......Page 145
8.7 Particle Size......Page 147
8.8 Particle Volume and Surface Area......Page 148
8.9 Volume/Surface Area Ratios......Page 149
8.10 Particle Formation......Page 150
9.1 Representative Sampling......Page 153
9.3 Particle Size Distribution and Concentration for Industrial Particulates......Page 154
9.5 Median and Mean Particle Size......Page 155
9.6 Standard Deviation......Page 158
9.7 The Frequency Distribution Curve......Page 159
9.8 The Cumulative Distribution Curve......Page 160
9.9 The Normal Distribution......Page 161
9.10 The Log Normal Distribution......Page 163
9.11 Effect of Size Distribution on Cumulative Distribution Plots......Page 165
9.12 Nanoparticle Size Variation With Time......Page 167
10 Particle Sizing and Measurement Methods......Page 173
10.1 Tyler and U.S. Standard Screens......Page 174
10.2 Equivalent Diameter Terms......Page 176
10.3 Aerodynamic Diameter......Page 177
10.4.1 Microscopy......Page 179
10.4.5 Impactors......Page 180
10.5 Rectangular Conduit Sampling......Page 181
10.6 Volumetric Flow Rate Calculation......Page 182
10.7 Particle Mass Flow Rate Calculation......Page 184
10.8 Average Particle Concentration......Page 185
10.9 Equal Annular Areas for Circular Ducts......Page 186
10.10 Traverse Point Location in Circular Ducts......Page 187
10.11 Duct Flow Equation Derivation......Page 188
10.12 Source Characteristics and Variations......Page 190
11 Fluid Particle Dynamics......Page 193
11.2 The Buoyant Force......Page 194
11.4 The Drag Coefficient......Page 196
11.5 Equation of Particle Motion/Balance of Forces on a Particle......Page 198
11.6 Particle Settling Velocity Equations......Page 199
11.7 Determination of the Flow Regime......Page 200
11.8 Settling Velocity Application......Page 201
11.9 The Cunningham Correction Factor......Page 202
11.10 Cunningham Correction Factor Values for Air at Atmospheric Pressure......Page 203
11.11 Particle Settling Velocity – Different Regimes......Page 204
11.12 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion......Page 208
12 Particle Collection Mechanisms......Page 209
12.2 Centrifugal Force......Page 210
12.3 Inertial Impaction and Interception......Page 212
12.4 Electrostatic Effects......Page 214
12.5 Thermophoresis and Diffusiophoresis......Page 215
12.7 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion Effects......Page 216
12.8 Nonspherical Particles......Page 218
12.9 Wall Effects......Page 219
12.11 Multidimensional Flow......Page 220
12.12 Collection Efficiency for Nanosized/Submicron Particles......Page 221
13 Particle Collection Efficiency......Page 223
13.2 Collection Efficiency: Mass Rate......Page 224
13.4 Penetration......Page 226
13.5 Collection Efficiency: Numbers Basis......Page 227
13.6 Particle Size–Collection Efficiency Relationships......Page 228
13.7 Collection Efficiency: Surface Area Basis......Page 229
13.8 Particle Size Distribution/Size–Efficiency Calculation......Page 230
13.9 Check for Emission Standards Compliance: Numbers Basis......Page 232
13.10 Anderson 2000 Sampler......Page 233
References: Part 2......Page 237
PART 3: APPLICATIONS......Page 239
14.1 Intellectual Property Law......Page 241
14.3 Contract Law......Page 242
14.4 Tort Law......Page 243
14.6 Conservation Law For Mass......Page 244
14.7 Conservation Law for Energy......Page 246
14.8 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 248
14.9 Allowable Patent Application Claims......Page 250
14.10 Practicing One’s Own Invention......Page 251
15.1 Size Reduction Objectives......Page 253
15.2 Plasma-Based and Flame-Hydrolysis Methods......Page 254
15.4 Sol-Gel Processing......Page 255
15.6 Promising Technologies......Page 257
15.7 Energy and Power Requirements......Page 258
15.9 Material Balance Size Reduction......Page 260
15.10 Size Reduction Surface Area Increase......Page 261
15.11 Fines Eductor Application......Page 263
15.12 Fines Eductor Size Reduction......Page 264
16 Prime Materials......Page 267
16.2 Iron......Page 268
16.4 Nickel......Page 269
16.7 Iron Oxides......Page 270
16.9 Zirconium Dioxide......Page 271
16.10 Titanium Dioxide......Page 272
16.12 Silica Products......Page 273
17 Production Manufacturing Routes......Page 275
17.1 Carbon Nanotubes and Buckyballs......Page 276
17.2 Semiconductor Manufacturing......Page 277
17.3 Advanced Composites......Page 278
17.4 Advanced Ceramics......Page 280
17.5 Catalytic and Photocatalytic Applications......Page 282
17.6 Gas Sensors and Other Analytical Devices......Page 283
17.8 Drug Delivery Mechanisms and Medical Therapeutics......Page 284
17.10 Future Activites......Page 286
18 Ventilation......Page 289
18.1 Indoor Air Quality......Page 290
18.3 Sources of Contaminents in Indoor Air......Page 291
18.5 Dilution Ventilation vs. Local Exhaust Systems......Page 293
18.6 Ventilation Definitions......Page 295
18.7 Air Exchange Rate......Page 298
18.8 Accidental Emission......Page 300
18.9 Dilution Ventilation Application......Page 301
18.10 Vinyl Chloride Application......Page 302
18.11 Ventilation Models......Page 304
18.12 Minimum Ventilation Flowrate......Page 308
19 Dispersion Considerations......Page 311
19.1 Atmospheric Deposition Calculation......Page 312
19.2 Ground Deposition of Particles......Page 313
19.3 Plume Rise......Page 315
19.4 Pasquill–Gifford Model......Page 316
19.5 Ground-Level Particle Deposition......Page 320
19.6 Line and Area Sources......Page 322
19.7 Instantaneous “Puff” Model......Page 325
19.8 Instantaneous “Puff” Sources......Page 328
19.9 U.S. EPA Dispersion Models......Page 329
19.10 Dispersion in Water Systems and Soils......Page 330
19.11 Canal Concentration Profile......Page 331
19.12 Accidenctal/Emergency Discharge into a Lake/Reservoir......Page 333
20.1 Determination of Ethical Values......Page 337
20.3 Codes of Ethics......Page 338
Fact Pattern......Page 339
Fact Pattern......Page 341
Fact Pattern......Page 343
Fact Pattern......Page 344
Fact Pattern......Page 345
Fact Pattern......Page 346
Fact Pattern......Page 347
References: Part 3......Page 349
PART 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS......Page 353
21 Environmental Regulations......Page 355
21.1 The Regulatory System......Page 356
21.2 Air Quality Issues......Page 357
21.3 Particulate Loading......Page 359
21.4 Clean Air Act Acronyms......Page 361
21.5.2 Safe Drinking Water Act......Page 364
21.6 Water Quality Issues......Page 365
21.7 Clean Water Act and PWPs......Page 367
21.8 Wastewater Composition......Page 368
21.9 Solid Waste Management Issues......Page 370
21.10 Hazardous Waste Incinerator......Page 371
21.11 Nanotechnology Environmental Regulations Overview......Page 372
21.12 Nanotechnology Opponents......Page 374
22.1 The Science of Toxicology......Page 375
22.3 Routes of Exposure......Page 376
22.4 Threshold Limit Value (TLV)......Page 377
22.5 Toxicology Terminology......Page 378
22.7 Toxicity Factors......Page 379
22.8 OSHA and NIOSH......Page 380
22.10 IDLH and Lethal Level......Page 381
22.11 Chemical Exposure......Page 383
22.12 Threshold Limit Values......Page 384
23.1 Hazard Quotient......Page 387
23.2 Reference Dose......Page 388
23.3 Concept of Threshold......Page 389
23.4 Exposure Duration Classification......Page 390
23.5 Risk For Multiple Agents: Chronic Exposure......Page 391
23.6 Risk for Multiple Agents: Subchronic Exposure......Page 392
23.7 Multiple Exposure Pathways......Page 393
23.9 Uncertainly and Modifying Factors......Page 394
23.10 Calculating an RfD from NOAEL......Page 395
23.12 Noncarcinogen Calculation Procedure......Page 396
24.1 Nonthreshold Concept......Page 399
24.2 Weight of Evidence and Slope Factor......Page 400
24.3 Carcinogenic Toxicity Values......Page 402
24.4 Benzene in Water Application......Page 403
24.6 Action Level......Page 404
24.7 Accidental Spill......Page 405
24.8 Uncertainties and Limitations......Page 406
24.9 Multiple Chemical Agents and Exposure Pathways......Page 407
24.11 Risk Algorithm......Page 408
24.12 Risk Algorithm Application for Benzene......Page 410
25 Health Risk Assessment......Page 413
25.2 The Health Risk Evaluation Process......Page 414
25.3 Standand Values for Individuals......Page 416
25.4 Qualitative Risk Scenarios......Page 417
25.5 Example of a Health Risk Assessment......Page 418
25.6 Chemical Exposure in a Laboratory......Page 419
25.7 Laboratory Spill......Page 420
25.8 Respirators......Page 421
25.9 Performance of a Carbon Cartridge Respirator......Page 422
25.10 Sampling Program......Page 424
26 Hazard Risk Assessment......Page 429
26.2 Risk Evaluation Process for Accidents......Page 430
26.3 Plant and Process Safety......Page 433
26.4 Series and Parallel Systems......Page 434
26.5 Binomial Distribution......Page 435
26.6 The Poisson Distribution......Page 436
26.7 The Weibull Distribution......Page 437
26.8 The Normal Distribution......Page 438
26.9 Soil Contamination......Page 441
26.10 Event Tree Analysis......Page 442
26.11 Fault Tree Analysis......Page 443
26.12 Upper and Lower Flamability Limits......Page 447
27.1 Historical View......Page 451
27.2 Occupational Health......Page 452
27.3 Descriptive Studies......Page 453
27.5 Prevalence......Page 454
27.6 Incidence Rate......Page 455
27.7 The Mean......Page 456
27.8 The Variance and the Standard Deviation......Page 457
References: Part 4......Page 459
Appendix Quantum Mechanics......Page 461
Index......Page 469