Nanotechnology Based Approaches for Tuberculosis Treatment

Chapter 1 - Pathogenesis, biology, and immunology of tuberculosis
	1 - Introduction
	2 - Mycobacterium tuberculosis and its transmission
		2.1 - Scientific classification [11]
		2.2 - Transmission
	3 - Factors responsible for its transmission
		3.1 - Patient-related risk factor
			3.1.1 - Proximate risk factor
			3.1.2 - Links between proximate risk factors and socioeconomic status
			3.1.3 - Role of urbanization
		3.2 - Bacteriological factors
			3.2.1 - Case Study 1
			3.2.2 - Case Study 2
	4 - Pathogenesis
		4.1 - Survival mechanisms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
			4.1.1 - The uniqueness in cell wall structure
			4.1.2 - Advantages due to presence of lipid at the cell wall
			4.1.3 - Intercellular growth
			4.1.4 - Function of phagocytic cells
			4.1.5 - Stage of granuloma
			4.1.6 - Inhibition of phagosome-lysosome fusion
			4.1.7 - Role of eukaryotic like protein kinases in mycobacterial cell
			4.1.8 - Seizing of calcineurin pathway
			4.1.9 - The after stages of macrophage activation
				4.1.9.1 - Role of cytokines
				4.1.9.2 - Role of TLR ligands
				4.1.9.3 - Role of mycobacterial glycolipids
				4.1.9.4 - Modulation of bacterial metabolic pathway
				4.1.9.5 - Transfer of protein
	5 - Mycobacterium tuberculosis capsule
		5.1 - Cellular structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis capsule
		5.2 - Host-pathogen interaction from the capsule point of view
		5.3 - Pharmaceutical methodology to target capsule
	6 - Immunology—Introduction
		6.1 - Immunology of tuberculosis
			6.1.1 - Immunology of upper respiratory track
		6.2 - Innate immune system
			6.2.1 - The Mycobacterial cell wall
			6.2.2 - Innate immune recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
			6.2.3 - Bacterial factors that evade these innate immune responses
			6.2.4 - Other mechanisms of recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by innate immune system
			6.2.5 - Effector functions of macrophages against engulfed Mycobacterium tuberculosis
		6.3 - Inflammatory responses
		6.4 - Adaptive immunity
		6.5 - Granuloma formation
		6.6 - Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2 - Tuberculosis: introduction, drug regimens, and multidrug-resistance
	1 - Introduction
	2 - Drug regimens for the treatment of tuberculosis
	3 - First line drugs for tuberculosis
	4 - Isoniazid
	5 - Rifampin
	6 - Pyrazinamide
	7 - Ethambutol
	8 - Streptomycin
	9 - Second-line antituberculosis drugs
	10 - Mechanisms of drug resistance
	11 - Conclusions
	References
Chapter 3 - Nanotechnology as a potential tool against drug- and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis
	1 - Tuberculosis as an infectious disease
	2 - Nanotechnology-based systems and the administration of drugs against tuberculosis
		2.1 - Solid-lipid forms
			2.1.1 - Solid–lipid microparticles (SLM)
			2.1.2 - Solid–lipid nanoparticles
			2.1.3 - Nanostructured lipid carrier
		2.2 - Emulsion-based systems
			2.2.1 - Microemulsion (ME)
			2.2.2 - Nanoemulsions (NE)
		2.3 - Vesicular drug-delivery systems
			2.3.1 - Liposomes (LPS)
			2.3.2 - Niosomes (NIOs)
			2.3.3 - Lipospheres (LIPs)
		2.4 - Miscellaneous NPs
			2.4.1 - Dendrimers
			2.4.2 - Nano/micro particles (NMPs)
			2.4.3 - Microspheres
			2.4.4 - Carbon nanotubes (CNTBs)
			2.4.5 - Nanosuspension (NSP)
			2.4.6 - Nanomicelles (NMCs)
			2.4.7 - Polymersomes
				2.4.7.1 - Implications of nanotechnology in MDR-TB and XDR-TB treatment
	3 - Factors affecting NPs properties
		3.1 - Potential benefits and risks in the use of NPs
			3.1.1 - Final considerations
	References
Chapter 4 - Translational research for therapy against tuberculosis
	1 - Research for tuberculosis elimination
	2 - Advances in the therapy for tuberculosis
	3 - New drugs for tuberculosis or new regimens
		3.1 - The issues
		3.2 - Recent advances
		3.3 - Future challenges
	4 - Drugs repurposed for tuberculosis
		4.1 - The issues
		4.2 - Recent advances
		4.3 - Future challenges
	5 - Host-directed therapy for tuberculosis
		5.1 - The issues
		5.2 - Recent advances
		5.3 - Future challenges
	6 - Tuberculosis research and care biomarkers. The OMICs of tuberculosis
	6.1 - Genomics
	6.2 - Transcriptomics
	6.3 - Proteomics
	6.4 - Metabolomics
	7 - The impasse of translational medicine in tuberculosis and future challenges
	References
Chapter 5 - Vaccine delivery systems against tuberculosis
	1 - Introduction
	2 - TB vaccine candidates in the pipeline
		2.1 - Viral vectored TB vaccines
		2.2 - Adjuvanted subunit TB vaccine
		2.3 - DNA TB vaccine
		2.4 - Whole-cell and live Mycobacteria TB vaccine
	3 - Vaccine administration routes for TB vaccine
		3.1 - Intradermal route of administration
		3.2 - The intramuscular route of administration
		3.3 - Subcutaneous route of administration
		3.4 - Intranasal (mucosal, sublingual) route of administration-
	4 - Advanced TB vaccine delivery systems and their related immune responses
		4.1 - Nanoparticles-based TB vaccine delivery systems
		4.2 - Cationic nanoparticle-based TB vaccine delivery
		4.3 - Chitosan-based nanoparticle TB vaccine delivery
		4.4 - Polymeric/polyester-based nanoparticle as a TB vaccine delivery system
		4.5 - Liposome-based TB vaccine delivery
		4.6 - Dendrimer-based TB vaccine delivery system
		4.7 - Immune stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) as a TB vaccine delivery system
		4.8 - Virus-like particles (VLPs)-based TB vaccine delivery system
		4.9 - Virosomes-based TB vaccine delivery system
		4.10 - Role of adjuvants in TB vaccine formulation and their delivery
	References
Chapter 6 - Inhalable polymeric dry powders for antituberculosis drug delivery
	Abbreviations
	1 - Introduction
	2 - Challenges with current anti-TB therapies
	3 - Rationale of pulmonary drug delivery in TB
	4 - Feasibility of lung as a portal for delivery of ATD
	5 - Pulmonary delivery of ATD
	6 - Formulations for DPIs
	7 - Drug carriers for pulmonary delivery
		7.1 - Polymeric nanoparticles
		7.2 - Hybrid nano-in-microparticles
		7.3 - Solid-lipid nano particles
		7.4 - Liposomes
		7.5 - Microparticles
	8 - Inhalation delivery devices for DPI
	9 - Clinical trials
	10 - Future of polymeric powder-based drug development for TB
	11 - Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7 -  Liposomes-and niosomes-based drug delivery systems for tuberculosis treatment
	1 - Introduction
	2 - Epidemiology
	3 - Nature of causative agent
	4 - Emergence of MDR and XDR TB
	5 - Drug regimens
	6 - Need for novel and sustained delivery systems
	7 - Nanodelivery systems
		7.1 - Introduction
		7.2 - Types of nanocarriers
		7.3 - Advantages of nanotechnology-based drug delivery system
	8 - Liposomes
		8.1 - Definition of liposomes
		8.2 - Types and uses of liposomes
		8.3 - Pulmonary TB and the importance of liposomal drugs
		8.4 - Si-RNA liposomes
		8.5 - Targeting of liposomes
	9 - Niosomes
		9.1 - Definition of niosomes
		9.2 - Advantages of niosomes
		9.3 - Various types of niosomes
		9.4 - Niosomes versus liposomes; which is superior?
		9.5 - Application of niosomes in drugs
		9.6 - Niosomes in the treatment of TB
		9.7 - Niosomal drug delivery system role in cerebral, drug-resistant TB
	10 - Pulmonary delivery of nanoparticle encapsulated antitubercular drugs
	11 - The future of combating TB
	References
Chapter 8 - Polymer-based nanoparticles as delivery systems for treatment and vaccination of tuberculosis
	1 - Polymer-based nanoparticles as drug delivery systems of tuberculosis
		1.1 - Nanocarriers based on natural polymers
			1.1.1 - Polysaccharide-based carriers
				1.1.1.1 - Chitosan-based carriers
				1.1.1.2 - Alginate-based carriers
				1.1.1.3 - Guar gum-based carriers
			1.1.2 - Polypeptide and protein-based carriers
				1.1.2.1 - Gelatin-based carriers
				1.1.2.2 - Albumin-based carriers
		1.2 - Nanocarriers based on synthetic polymers
			1.2.1 - PLGA-based nanocarriers
	2 - Nanoparticle-based delivery systems for vaccination against tuberculosis
		2.1 - Tuberculosis vaccines
			2.1.1 - BCG
			2.1.2 - Preexposure vaccines
			2.1.3 - Postexposure vaccines
			2.1.4 - Therapeutic vaccines
			2.1.5 - Current vaccines weaknesses
		2.2 - Adjuvants
		2.3 - Vaccine delivery systems
			2.3.1 - Natural polymer-based nanoparticles
			2.3.2 - Biodegradable synthetic polymer-based nanoparticles
			2.3.3 - Nonbiodegradable synthetic polymers
		2.4 - The future challenges
	References
Chapter 9 - Nanotechnology-based approaches for tuberculosis treatment
	1 - Drug delivery systems
	2 - Tuberculosis: the need for antitubercular drug delivery systems
	3 - Nanomedicine and tuberculosis
	4 - Oral ATD-nanomedicine
	5 - Ligand-appended oral ATD-nanomedicine
	6 - Pulmonary delivery of ATD-nanomedicine
	7 - Injectable ATD-nanomedicine
	8 - Alginate-based ATD-nanomedicine
	9 - Lipid-based ATD-nanomedicine
		9.1 - Liposome-based drug delivery systems
		9.2 - Microemulsions as potential ATD delivery systems
		9.3 - Niosomes-based ATD delivery system
		9.4 - Solid lipid nanoparticles-based ATD-nanomedicine
	10 - ATD-nanomedicine for special situations: cerebral TB, drug-resistant TB, and latent TB
	11 - Potential toxicity of ATD-nanomedicine
	12 - ATD-nanomedicine: unresolved and upcoming issues
	13 - Conflict of interest
	References
Chapter 10 - Dendrimer-based drug delivery systems for tuberculosis treatment
	1 - Introduction
	2 - Dendrimers
	3 - PAMAM dendrimers for tuberculosis treatment
	4 - PPI dendrimers for tuberculosis treatment
	5 - Melamine, PEHAM, and PEA dendrimers for tuberculosis treatment
	6 - Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11 - Polymeric micelle-based drug delivery systems for tuberculosis treatment
	1 - Introduction
	2 - The structure of polymeric micelle
		2.1 - Corona of miceller structure
		2.2 - Core of miceller structure
	3 - Commonly used polymers in polymeric micelle
		3.1 - Commonly used amphiphilic block copolymers
	4 - Polymeric micelles for enhanced permeability and retention effect
		4.1 - Factors affecting EPR of miceller deliveries
			4.1.1 - Bradykinin and permeability of cells
			4.1.2 - Free radicals in cell permeability
			4.1.3 - Permeability and prostaglandin with other factors
	5 - Tuberculosis and urge of novel delivery approaches
	6 - Recent advances of polymeric micelles in tuberculosis
	7 - Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	Conflict of interest
	References
Chapter 12 - Nanostructured lipid carrier-based drug delivery systems for tuberculosis treatment
	1 - Methods of production
		1.1 - Hot homogenization method
		1.2 - Cold homogenization method
	2 - Excipients used in lipid nanocarriers
		2.1 - Lipids
		2.2 - Emulsifiers
	3 - Challenges for current tuberculosis therapy
	4 - Lipid nanoparticles for TB treatment
	5 - Solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers as alternative nanomedicines for TB treatment
	6 - Lipid nanoparticles functionalization
	References
Chapter 13 - DNA markers and nano-biosensing approaches for tuberculosis diagnosis
	List of abbreviations
	1 - Introduction
	2 - DNA structure
	3 - Carbonaceous nanomaterials-based DNA biosensors
		3.1 - Graphene derivatives
		3.2 - Carbon nanotubes
	4 - Nanoparticles based-DNA biosensors
		4.1 - Noble metal nanoparticles
		4.2 - Metal oxide nanoparticles
		4.3 - Magnetic beads
		4.4 - Quantum dots
	5 - Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14 - Recent advancement and future perspective for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis
	1 - Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB): the emergence of new global threat to tuberculosis (TB) eradication
	2 - The progression of treatment guidelines for MDR-TB: the past and present
	3 - The advancement in MDR-TB treatment: the recent, on-going, and future direction
		3.1 - The promising new all-oral drugs versus the extensively use injectable drugs
			3.1.1 - Bedaquiline
			3.1.2 - Delamanid
			3.1.3 - Pretomanid—the newly approved oral drugs for the treatment of highly resistant TB
		3.2 - Other ongoing trials for new treatment regimen for MDR-TB/XDR-TB
	4 - Host-directed therapies as a future option in treating MDR-TB
	5 - Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15 - 
Nanotechnology approach in conquering anti-TB resistance
	Abbreviations
	1 - Mycobacterium: pathogenesis and its problem in the resistant
	2 - Antituberculosis and the mechanism of antituberculosis resistant
	3 - Nanoparticle and its use to conquer tuberculosis infection
	4 - Function nanoparticle for overcoming resistance tuberculosis treatment
	5 - Nanoparticle for diagnose tuberculosis
	References