Nanoparticle-Mediated Immunotherapy

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Part I Basic Principles and Methods
	The New Frontier in Medicine at the Convergence of Nanotechnology and Immunotherapy
		1 Nanoparticles and the Immune System
			1.1 Stepping into the Nanoworld
			1.2 The Immune System
			1.3 Nanoparticle Size Effect
			1.4 Nanoparticle Shape, Structure, and Surface Effect
		2 Nanoparticles, Antitumor Immunity and Cancer Immunotherapy
			2.1 Nanoparticle and Cancer Immunosurveillance and Tumor Microenvironment
			2.2 Nanosystems with Tumor Antigens
			2.3 Nanoparticles Having Adjuvant Activity
			2.4 Virus-like Nanoparticles and Cancer Immunotherapy
		3 Nanoparticle-Mediated Hyperthermia and the Immune System
			3.1 Hyperthermia Effect on the Immune System
			3.2 Nanoparticle-Mediated Hyperthermia
		4 Synergistic Combination Nano Immunotherapies
			4.1 Immunotherapy Using Checkpoint Inhibitors
			4.2 Synergistic Dual-Modality Immunotherapies
		5 Conclusion: The Next Frontier in Medicine
		References
	Cancer Immunotherapy Strategies: Basic Principles
		1 Introduction and the Current State-of-the-Art Strategies for Immunotherapy
			1.1 Cancer Vaccines
				1.1.1 DC Vaccines
				1.1.2 Peptide/Antigenic Vaccines
			1.2 Adoptive Lymphocyte Transfer
				1.2.1 CAR T Cell Therapy
			1.3 Viral-Based Strategies for Immunotherapy
			1.4 Immune Checkpoint Blockade
		2 Challenges of Immunotherapy: Limitations of Access and Immune Suppression
			2.1 Immune Access
			2.2 Immune Suppression
		3 Nanotechnologies to Enhance Cancer Immunotherapy
			3.1 Nanotechnologies to Improve ALT
			3.2 Nanotechnologies to Improve Cancer Vaccines
			3.3 Nanotechnologies to Improve Viral-Based Immunotherapy
			3.4 Nanotechnologies to Improve Immune Checkpoint Blockade
		4 Summary and Future Directions
		References
	Immunotherapy: From Discovery to Bedside
		1 Immunotherapy: From Discovery to Bedside
			1.1 Overview of Immunotherapy
				1.1.1 Nonspecific Immunity
				1.1.2 Specific Immunity
			1.2 Drug Development
				1.2.1 Overview
				1.2.2 Preclinical Phase
				1.2.3 Clinical Phase
				1.2.4 Challenges of Immunotherapy Trials
			1.3 Summary
		References
	Intravital Optical Imaging to Monitor Anti-Tumor Immunological Response in Preclinical Models
		1 Introduction
		2 Immuno-Oncology
			2.1 Use of Nanoparticles in Immune Therapy
		3 Imaging Techniques
			3.1 Advantages of Intravital Techniques
			3.2 Wide Field Microscopy and Imaging
			3.3 Confocal Microscopy and Structured Illumination
			3.4 Multiphoton Microscopy
			3.5 Photoacoustic Microscopy
			3.6 Other Microscopy Techniques
		4 Models and Methods of Quantifying Immune Function
			4.1 Window Chamber Models
			4.2 Genetic Reporter Models of Immune Cells
			4.3 Exogenous Sources of Contrast
			4.4 Other Sources of Contrast Including Functional Imaging of the Tumor and Tumor Microenvironment
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Nanoparticle-Mediated Heating: A Theoretical Study for Photothermal Treatment and Photo Immunotherapy
		1 Introduction
		2 Theory
			2.1 Heat Flow Equation
			2.2 Optical Heat Sources
			2.3 Heat Generation from a Point Source
			2.4 Heat Generation from a Planewave Source
		3 Temperature Elevation Using a Point Source of Optical Power
			3.1 Time-Dependent Temperature
			3.2 Steady-State Temperature
			3.3 Cooling
		4 Temperature Elevation from a Planewave Source of Optical Power
			4.1 Thermal Boundary Conditions
			4.2 Time-Dependent Temperature
			4.3 Steady-State Temperature
		5 Simulations
			5.1 Point Source Illumination
			5.2 Planewave illumination
		6 Summary
		Appendix 1: Derivation of the Green's Functions
		Appendix 2: Temperature Elevation for Boundary Condition 3
		References
Part II Nanosystems for Biomedical Applications
	Nanoparticle Systems Applied for Immunotherapy in Various Treatment Modalities
		1 Introduction
		2 Widening the Therapeutic Window
		3 Enhancing Adoptive-Cell Therapy
		4 Improving Payload Delivery
		5 Combinational Cancer Immunotherapy with Nanoparticles
			5.1 Nanoparticle-Based Photothermal Immunotherapy
			5.2 Nanoparticle-Based Photodynamic Immunotherapy
			5.3 Nanoparticle-Based Chemo-Immunotherapy
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Design of Nanostructure Materials to Modulate Immunosuppressive Tumour Microenvironments and Enhance Cancer Immunotherapy
		1 Introduction
			1.1 History and Conventional Methods of Cancer Therapy
			1.2 Emergence of Cancer Immunotherapy
			1.3 Hurdle of Early Cancer Immunotherapy
			1.4 Expansion of Cancer Immunotherapy
			1.5 Immune Suppressive Cells in TME
			1.6 Cytokines and Chemokines in TME
			1.7 Organized Interaction Between TME
			1.8 Immune Checkpoint and ICBT Combination
			1.9 Hurdle of Recent Cancer Immunotherapy
			1.10 Design of Nanostructures to Overcome the Hurdle of Recent Cancer Immunotherapy
		2 Nanomaterials for the Modulation of Immunosuppressive Cells in TME
			2.1 Regulatory T Cells (Treg Cells)
			2.2 Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC)
			2.3 Tumour-Associated Macrophages (TAM)
		3 Nanomaterials for the Modulation of Immunosuppressive Factors in TME
			3.1 Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase (IDO)
			3.2 Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2)
			3.3 TGF-β
			3.4 Interleukin-10
			3.5 Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)
			3.6 Immune Check Point Blockade
				3.6.1 αPD-L1
				3.6.2 αPD-1
				3.6.3 αCTLA-4
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Plasmonic Gold Nanostars for Immuno Photothermal Nanotherapy to Treat Cancers and Induce Long-Term Immunity
		1 Introduction
		2 Gold Nanostars: A Versatile and Effective Platform for Photothermal Therapy
		3 Combination Photo Immuno Therapy: SYMPHONY
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Nanotechnologies for Photothermal and Immuno Cancer Therapy: Advanced Strategies Using Copper Sulfide Nanoparticles and Bacterium-Mimicking Liposomes for Enhanced Efficacy
		1 Copper Sulfide Nanoparticles
			1.1 Synthesis of CuSNPs
				1.1.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Methods
				1.1.2 Microwave Irradiation
				1.1.3 Direct Dry-Grinding Synthesis
				1.1.4 Hollow CuSNPs Synthesis
			1.2 Biomedical Applications of CuSNPs
				1.2.1 Photothermal Therapy
				1.2.2 Drug Delivery
		2 Bacterium-Mimicking Liposomes
			2.1 Adjuvant of Ligands for Toll-Like Receptors and NOD-Like Receptors
			2.2 Engineering of Bacterium-Mimicking Liposomes as Adjuvants for Cancer Vaccines
		3 Combinatorial Immuno and Photothermal Therapy
			3.1 Immunogenic Cell Death Induced by PTT
			3.2 Immuno Adjuvant Therapy Synergizes PTT in Cancer Treatment
		4 Summary
		References
	Nanoparticle-Based Phototherapy in Combination with Checkpoint Blockade for Cancer Immunotherapy
		1 Introduction
		2 Photothermal Therapy
		3 Photodynamic Therapy
		4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	Development of Nanoparticles as a Vaccine Platform
		1 Cellular Uptake of Nanoparticles and their Biodistribution
			1.1 Effects of Size and Shape In Vitro
			1.2 Design of Surface Ligand Molecules for Cytosolic Delivery
			1.3 Effects of Size and Shape on Biodistributions In Vivo
		2 Effects of Particle Shape and Size on Immune Response
			2.1 Merits of Using Nanoparticles for Vaccines
			2.2 Effects of Nanoparticle Size on Vaccine Activity
			2.3 Effects of Nanoparticle Shape on Vaccine Activity
		3 Summary
		References
	Multifunctional Gold Nanostars for Sensitive Detection, Photothermal Treatment and Immunotherapy of Brain Tumor
		1 Introduction
		2 Theoretical Consideration of Laser Excitation Energy into a Brain Tissue Phantom
		3 Sensitive Brain Cancer Detection with Gold Nanostars
		4 Synergistic Photoimmunotherapy of Brain Tumor with GNS
		5 In Vivo Toxicity of GNS
		6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
		References
Index