Nanomycotoxicology: Treating Mycotoxins in the Nano Way

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Nanomycotoxicology: Treating Mycotoxins in the Nano Way
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List of contributors
Preface
1 -
An introduction to nanomycotoxicology
	1. Introduction
	2. Mycotoxicogenic fungi
	3. Mycotoxins
	4. Mycotoxicoses
	5. Nanomycotoxicology
	References
Section I: Detection
2 -
Role of nanotechnology in the detection of mycotoxins: a smart approach
	1. Introduction
	2. Important mycotoxins: occurrence and toxicity
		2.1 Aflatoxins
		2.2 Ochratoxins
		2.3 Fumonisins
		2.4 Trichothecenes
		2.5 Zearalenone
	3. Conventional methods for the detection of mycotoxins
	4. Role of nanotechnology in the detection of mycotoxins: a smart approach
		4.1 Nanosensors for the detection of mycotoxins
		4.2 Nanodiagnostic kit for mycotoxin detection in crops
		4.3 Nanosensors for the detection of mycotoxins in packaged food
		4.4 Electronic nose for the detection of mycotoxins
		4.5 Electronic tongue for the detection of mycotoxins
	5. Conclusion
	References
3 -
Aptamer-based biosensors for mycotoxin detection
	1. Introduction
	2. Mycotoxins—general characterization
	3. Aptamers for mycotoxin binding
	4. Aptasensors for mycotoxin determination
		4.1 Electrochemical aptasensors
		4.2 Optical aptasensors
		4.3 Other principles of signal transduction
	5. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
4 -
Immunochromatographic techniques for mycotoxin analysis
	1. Introduction
	2. Immunochromatographic test strip
		2.1 Lateral flow immunochromatographic assay
		2.2 Dipstick
		2.3 Microfluidics
	3. Advantages of lateral flow immunoassay
	4. Materials in lateral flow immunoassay
		4.1 Sample pad
		4.2 Membrane
		4.3 Conjugate pad
		4.4 Wick
		4.5 Plastic adhesive backing card
		4.6 Labels
			4.6.1 Nanoparticles
				4.6.1.1 Gold nanoparticles
				4.6.1.2 Quantum dots beads
				4.6.1.3 Magnetic nanoparticles
	5. Lateral flow immunoassay types
		5.1 Sandwich assay
		5.2 Competitive assay
	6. Application of immunochromatographic test strip
	7. Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
5 -
Magnetic nanomaterials for purification, detection, and control of mycotoxins
	1. Introduction
	2. Mycotoxin extraction and purification
		2.1 Magnetic solid-phase extraction
		2.2 MWCNT magnetic nanocomposites
	3. Mycotoxin detection
		3.1 Magnetic nanoparticle-based ELISA
		3.2 Magnetic nanoparticles HPLC-based assay
		3.3 Immunomagnetic nanoparticle-based assay
		3.4 Magnetic micromotors
		3.5 Magnetic nanoparticle-based aptasensor
		3.6 Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers
		3.7 Other mycotoxins detection techniques
			3.7.1 A chemiluminescence immunoassay
			3.7.2 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering
			3.7.3 Nanobody
			3.7.4 Bio-bar code method
			3.7.5 Giant magnetoresistive detection
	4. Mycotoxin control
		4.1 Magnetic nanocomposites
		4.2 Magnetic nanoadsorbent
	5. Conclusion and future trends
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section II: Synthesis, toxicity, and management
6 -
Mycotoxin-induced toxicities and diseases
	1. Introduction
	2. Toxicity of aflatoxin
		2.1 Genotoxicity
		2.2 Teratogenicity
		2.3 Immunotoxicity
		2.4 Nephrotoxicity
		2.5 Hepatogastrointestinal toxicity
		2.6 Neurotoxicity
	3. Toxicity of ochratoxin
		3.1 Genotoxicity
		3.2 Teratogenicity
		3.3 Immunotoxicity
		3.4 Nephrotoxicity and kidney cancer
		3.5 Hepatotoxicity
		3.6 Neurotoxicity
	4. Toxicity of fumonisin
		4.1 Genotoxicity
		4.2 Teratogenicity
		4.3 Immunotoxicity
		4.4 Nephrotoxicity
		4.5 Hepatogastrointestinal toxicity
		4.6 Neurotoxicity
		4.7 Pulmonary and cardiovascular toxicity
	5. Toxicity of zearalenone
		5.1 Genotoxicity
		5.2 Teratogenicity
		5.3 Immunotoxicity
		5.4 Nephrotoxicity
		5.5 Hepatogastrointestinal and bronchial toxicity
		5.6 Pulmonary and cardiovascular toxicity
		5.7 Neurotoxicity
	6. Conclusion
	References
7 -
Green nanotechnology: nanoformulations against toxigenic fungi to limit mycotoxin production
	1. Introduction
	2. Major mycotoxins
		2.1 Aflatoxins
		2.2 Ochratoxins
		2.3 Fumonisins
		2.4 Zearalenone
		2.5 Trichothecenes
	3. Medicinal plants
		3.1 Phytochemicals against mycotoxigenic fungi
		3.2 Challenges of phytofungicides
	4. Green chemistry principles
		4.1 Metallic nanofungicides
		4.2 Polymeric nanofungicides
		4.3 Hybrid nanofungicides
	5. Nanofunigicides mode of action against toxigenic fungi
		5.1 Disturb cell wall integrity
		5.2 ROS accumulation
		5.3 Mitochondrial disruption
		5.4 Caspase cascade
		5.5 Phosphatidylserine externalization, DNA fragmentation, and chromatin condensation
		5.6 Other activity: biofilm growth inhibition
	6. Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
8.-
Mycotoxins: decontamination and nanocontrol methods
	1. Introduction
	2. Prevention of contamination
	3. Mycotoxin detoxification
		3.1 Detoxification by agricultural by-products
		3.2 Detoxification by antioxidant molecules
		3.3 Detoxification by microorganisms
		3.4 Detoxification by medicinal plants, edible fungi, and spices
		3.5 Detoxification by chemical and physical methods
	4. A new approach for detoxification with nanoparticles
		4.1 Inhibition of fungal growth
		4.2 Mycotoxin adsorption
		4.3 Mycotoxin elimination
	5. Conclusion
	References
9 -
Heat resistant fungi, toxicity and their management by nanotechnologies
	1. The ecology of heat resistant fungi
	2. Heat resistance of fungi and the affecting factors
	3. Food spoilage caused by heat resistant fungi
	4. Growth control of the heat resistant fungi in foods
	5. Metabolites of heat resistant fungi
	6. Enzymes
		6.1 Pectinases
		6.2 Proteinases
		6.3 Amylases
	7. Mycotoxins
		7.1 Patulin
		7.2 Byssochlamic acid
		7.3 Byssotoxin A (assymetrin, variotin)
		7.4 Tremorgenic mycotoxins
		7.5 Other mycotoxins
	8. Less common heat resistant fungi
		8.1 Dichotomomyces cejpii (Miľko) Scott=Aspergillus cejpii (Miľko) Samson, Varga, Visagie et Houbraken
		8.2 Eupenicillium baarnense (van Beyma) Stolk et Scott
		8.3 Talaromyces avellaneus (Thom et Turesson) C. R. Benjamin
		8.4 Talaromyces bacillisporus (Swift) C. R. Benjamin
		8.5 Talaromyces emersonii Stolk
	9. Nanotechnology and food/feed contamination by fruit-related fungi or their metabolites
	10. Nano-aptasensing for analysis of mycotoxins common in fruits
	11. Conclusion
	References
10 -
Application of nanoparticles in inhibition of mycotoxin-producing fungi
	1. Introduction
	2. Mycotoxin-producing fungi
	3. Types of nanoparticles and their application for inhibition of fungal growth
	4. Action mechanism of nanoparticles against mycotoxic fungi
	5. Future perspectives
	6. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
11 -
Metal nanoparticles for management of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxicosis diseases of animals and poultry
	1. Introduction
	2. Synthesis and characterization of metal nanoparticles
		2.1 Physical and chemical synthesis of metal nanoparticles
		2.2 Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles
		2.3 Characterization of metal nanoparticles [45]
	3. Mycosis by Mycotoxic fungi in animal and poultry
	4. Mycotoxicosis in animal and poultry
	5. Efficacy of metal nanoparticles in management of mycotic diseases in animals
	6. Amelioration of the toxic effects of mycotoxins in animals by metal nanoparticles
	7. Toxicity of metal nanoparticles
	8. Conclusion and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
12 -
The efficacy of mycotoxin-detoxifying and biotransforming agents in animal nutrition
	1. Introduction
	2. Controlling mycotoxins by nontoxic mold strains
		2.1 Adsorbing agents
		2.2 Biotransforming agents
		2.3 Benefit/risk assessment
	3. Nanoapproaches for mycotoxin risk elimination
		3.1 Antifungal nanomaterials cause mold inhibition and mycotoxin production
	4. Conclusion
	References
13 -
Nanomaterials and ozonation: safe strategies for mycotoxin management
	1. Introduction
	2. Zinc nanoparticles
	3. Silver nanoparticles
	4. Selenium nanoparticles
	5. Copper nanoparticles
	6. Nanoemulsion
	7. Nanoadsorbents
	8. Superoxide agent (ozonation)
	9. Ozonation advantages
	10. Ozonizers
	11. Ozonation for detoxification of aflatoxins
	12. Ozonation for detoxification of trichothecenes
	13. Ozonation for detoxification of fumonisin
	14. Ozonation for detoxification of zearalenone
	15. Ozonation for detoxification of ochratoxin A
	16. Conclusion and future trends
	References
14 -
Impact of nanoparticles on toxigenic fungi
	1. Introduction
	2. Impact of essential oils on toxigenic fungi and production of toxins
		2.1 Nanoformulations improving impact of essential oils on toxigenic fungi
	3. Impact of metal nanoparticles on toxigenic fungi
		3.1 Silver nanoparticles
		3.2 Gold nanoparticles
		3.3 Copper nanoparticles
		3.4 Zinc nanoparticles
		3.5 TiO2 nanoparticles
		3.6 Iron nanoparticles
	4. Nonmetal nanoparticles
	5. Carbon-based nanoparticles
	6. Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
15 -
Nanocomposites: synergistic nanotools for management of mycotoxigenic fungi
	1. Introduction
	2. Adverse effects of widespread mycotoxins on human and animal health
	3. Polymeric matrices
		3.1 Chitosan-based matrices
		3.2 Other natural matrices
		3.3 Semisynthetic and synthetic matrices
	4. Silica-based NCPs and their hybrids
	5. Carbon-based NCPs and their hybrids
	6. Metal-based NCPs and their hybrids
	7. Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
16 -
Nanotechnological methods for aflatoxin control
	1. Introduction
	2. Nanoparticles and their properties
		2.1 Metal nanoparticles
		2.2 Nanocarbons
		2.3 Chitosan nanoparticles
	3. Effect of nanoparticles on aflatoxin reduction
	4. Conclusion
	References
17 -
Antifungal and filmogenic properties of micro- and nanostructures of chitosan and its derivatives
	1. Introduction
	2. Antifungal activity of chitosan and its oligomers
	3. Antifungal activity of micro- and nanostructures of chitosan
	4. Postharvest quality of plant products treated with of chitosan
	5. Chitosan treatment in some fungal species and changes in hyphal morphology
	6. Defense mechanisms in plants elicited by chitosan, microchitosan, nanochitosan, and chitooligomers treatment
	7. Antimicrobial properties and mode of action of micro- and nanostructures of chitosan
	8. Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
18 -
Nanoparticles and gene silencing for suppression of mycotoxins: what we know and what we should know?
	1. Introduction
	2. How does RNAi work?
	3. RNAi mechanism in management of toxicogenic fungi
	4. Transport of siRNA between the host plant cells and the mycotoxigenic fungi
	5. Vesicle-mediated RNA transport
	6. Transporter-mediated RNA uptake
	7. RNAi transmission inside plants
	8. RNAi-based approaches in control of toxicogenic fungi
	9. RNAi in the field
	10. Nanotools to improve RNAi efficiency
		10.1 Nanoparticles
		10.2 Chemical modifications
			10.2.1 RNAi disadvantages
		10.3 Risk assessment of RNAi application
	11. Conclusion and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
19 - Nanostructure self-assembly for direct nose-to-brain drug delivery: a novel approach for cryptococcal meningitis
	1. Introduction
	2. Cryptococcal meningitis
	3. Treatment
		3.1 Amphotericin B
	4. Flucytosine
	5. Azoles
	6. General approach
	7. Nose-to-brain delivery
	8. Nose-to-brain stimuli-responsive systems
		8.1 Thermally triggered systems
		8.2 pH-triggered systems
	9. Liposomes
	10. Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems
	11. Liquid crystals
	12. Dendrimers
	13. Nose-to-brain dendrimer drug delivery
	14. Concluding remarks and perspectives
	References
	Further reading
20 -
Potent application of nitric oxide–releasing nanomaterials against toxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins
	1. Introduction
	2. Chemistry and biology of NO
	3. NO donors
	4. S-nitrosothiols
	5. Organic nitrates (nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate) and isosorbide mononitrate)
	6. Sodium nitroprusside
	7. N-diazeniumdiolates
	8. NO and nanomaterials
	9. Functionalized metallic nanoparticles
	10. Porous silica nanoparticles
	11. Polymeric nanoparticles
	12. Dendrimers
	13. Micelles
	14. NO and fungi
	15. How does NO exert its antifungal activity?
	16. Conclusions
	References
Index
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