Nanomaterials handbook

Contents......Page 1
Dedication......Page 4
Preface......Page 5
Editor......Page 6
Contributors......Page 7
Contents......Page 10
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 13
1.2 THE NANOWORLD IS UNIQUELY DIFFERENT......Page 15
1.3 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION......Page 17
1.5 COMPUTER SIMULATION AND MODELING......Page 21
1.6 APPLICATIONS......Page 22
REFERENCES......Page 24
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 25
2.2.1 SOLID-STATE SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES......Page 26
2.2.2.1 Inert Gas Condensation of Nanoparticles......Page 27
2.2.2.2 Plasma-Based Synthesis of Nanoparticles......Page 30
2.2.2.3 Flame-Based Synthesis of Nanoparticles......Page 32
2.2.2.4 Spray Pyrolysis of Nanoparticles......Page 33
2.3 SOLUTION PROCESSING OF NANOPARTICLES......Page 34
2.3.2 SOLUTION PRECIPITATION......Page 35
2.3.3 WATER–OIL MICROEMULSION (REVERSE MICELLE) METHOD......Page 36
2.5 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES......Page 37
REFERENCES......Page 38
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 40
3.2.1.1 [2
2] Cycloadditions......Page 41
3.2.1.2 [3+2] Cycloadditions......Page 42
3.2.1.3 [4+2] Cycloadditions......Page 49
3.2.2 CYCLOPROPANATION REACTIONS......Page 50
3.3.1 ROTAXANES, CATENANES, PSEUDOROTAXANES......Page 54
3.3.2 NANORINGS, PEAPODS......Page 58
3.3.4 COMPLEMENTARY HYDROGEN BONDED SUPRAMOLECULAR SYSTEMS......Page 61
3.4.1 DONOR–ACCEPTOR SYSTEMS......Page 63
3.4.1.1 Dyads Containing Photoactive Electron Donors......Page 64
3.4.1.2 Dyads Containing Nonphotoactive Electron Donors......Page 65
3.4.2 PLASTIC SOLAR CELLS......Page 67
REFERENCES......Page 72
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 80
4.2.1 SINGLE-WALL TUBES, BUNDLES, AND CRYSTALLINE ROPES......Page 82
4.2.3 MACROSCOPIC NANOTUBE MATERIALS......Page 84
4.2.5 FILLED TUBES......Page 86
4.2.6 NANOTUBE SUSPENSIONS......Page 89
4.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES......Page 90
4.3.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES......Page 91
4.3.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES......Page 92
4.3.3 ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES......Page 97
4.3.4 MAGNETIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING PROPERTIES......Page 109
REFERENCES......Page 110
CONTENTS......Page 116
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 117
5.2 CARBON NANOTUBE MORPHOLOGY AND STRUCTURE......Page 118
5.3 SYNTHESIS OF CARBON NANOTUBES......Page 119
5.4 OPENING OF CARBON NANOTUBES......Page 120
5.5 FUNCTIONALIZATION OF CARBON NANOTUBES......Page 121
5.5.2 REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC GROUPS ATTACHED TO NANOTUBES......Page 122
5.5.3 FLUORINATION......Page 126
5.5.4 AMIDATION......Page 127
5.5.5 OTHER TYPES OF COVALENT BONDING......Page 129
5.5.6 NONCOVALENT BONDING......Page 132
5.5.8 SELF-ASSEMBLY, FILM, AND FIBER FORMATION......Page 135
5.6 FILLING THE INNER CAVITY OF CARBON NANOTUBES......Page 138
5.6.1 IN SITU FILLING......Page 139
5.6.2.1 Filling from Liquid Media......Page 140
5.6.2.2 Filling from Gas Phase......Page 142
5.6.3 REACTIONS INSIDE NANOTUBE......Page 143
5.6.4 THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS INSIDE NANOTUBES......Page 144
5.7 ADSORPTION AND STORAGE OF GASES......Page 145
5.7.1 HYDROGEN PROBLEM......Page 146
5.7.2 CARBON NANOTUBE GAS SENSORS......Page 148
5.8.1 BIOSENSORS......Page 149
5.9.1 SUBSTITUTION OF THE CARBON ATOMS OF NANOTUBES......Page 151
5.9.2 DECORATION OF CARBON NANOTUBES......Page 152
5.10 INTERCALATION OF “GUEST” MOIETIES......Page 154
REFERENCES......Page 156
ABSTRACT......Page 188
6.2 GRAPHITE WHISKERS AND CONES......Page 189
6.2.1.1 Whiskers......Page 190
6.2.1.2 Cones......Page 192
6.2.2 OCCURRENCE OF GRAPHITE WHISKERS AND CONES IN NATURE......Page 195
6.2.3 STRUCTURE: GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 196
6.2.4.1 Electronic Properties of Synthetic Whiskers and Cones......Page 200
6.2.4.2 Raman Spectra......Page 201
6.3.1 SYNTHESIS......Page 202
6.3.2 STRUCTURE OF POLYGONAL TUBES......Page 204
6.3.3.1 Electronic Band Structure......Page 207
6.3.3.2 Raman Spectra......Page 208
6.3.3.3 Chemical, Thermal, and Mechanical Stability......Page 209
6.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 210
REFERENCES......Page 211
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 214
7.2 STABILITY OF NANODIAMOND......Page 215
7.3 TYPES OF NANODIAMOND AND METHODS OF THEIR SYNTHESIS......Page 219
7.3.1 ZERO-DIMENSIONAL NANODIAMOND STRUCTURES......Page 220
7.3.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL NANODIAMOND STRUCTURES......Page 225
7.3.4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL NANODIAMOND STRUCTURES......Page 228
7.4.1 SYNTHESIS AND PROPERTIES......Page 230
7.4.2 APPLICATIONS OF ULTRANANOCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND PARTICULATE......Page 236
7.5 ULTRANANOCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND FILMS PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION......Page 238
7.6 CARBIDE-DERIVED DIAMOND-STRUCTURED CARBON......Page 239
7.7 MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF NANODIAMOND......Page 240
7.8 CONCLUSION......Page 243
REFERENCES......Page 244
CONTENTS......Page 250
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 251
8.2.1 CHLORINATION OF CARBIDES FOR PRODUCTION OF CHLORIDES......Page 252
8.2.2 THERMODYNAMIC SIMULATIONS......Page 253
8.2.3 HISTORIC OVERVIEW......Page 254
8.2.4 KINETICS OF HALOGENATION OF CARBIDES......Page 256
8.2.6.1 Pore Formation......Page 257
8.2.6.2 Effect of the Chlorination Temperature......Page 259
8.2.6.3 Effect of the Carbide Structure......Page 263
8.2.6.5 Effect of a Halogen......Page 265
8.2.6.7 CDC Composites......Page 266
8.2.7.1 Graphitization and Detection of Nanocrystals......Page 267
8.2.7.2 Carbon Nanostructures......Page 269
8.3.1 REACTION OF CALCIUM CARBIDE WITH INORGANIC SALTS......Page 271
8.3.2.1 Thermodynamic Analysis......Page 272
8.3.2.2 Experimental Results......Page 273
8.4.1 CARBON STRUCTURE AND CONSERVATION OF SHAPE......Page 274
8.4.2 SYNTHESIS OF CARBON NANOTUBES AND CARBON ONIONS......Page 276
8.5.1 SUPERCAPACITORS......Page 280
8.5.2 HYDROGEN STORAGE......Page 281
8.5.4 LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES......Page 282
8.5.6 TRIBOLOGICAL COATINGS......Page 283
REFERENCES......Page 284
ABSTRACT......Page 294
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 295
9.2 STRATEGIES FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF 1-D NANOSTRUCTURES......Page 296
9.2.1 METAL NANOCLUSTERS: FACILITATING 1-D GROWTH......Page 297
9.2.2 LASER-ASSISTED METAL-CATALYZED NANOWIRE GROWTH......Page 298
9.2.3 METAL-CATALYZED VAPOR–LIQUID–SOLID GROWTH......Page 299
9.2.4 VAPOR–SOLID–SOLID GROWTH......Page 301
9.2.6 CHEMICAL SOLUTION-BASED GROWTH......Page 302
9.2.7 TEMPLATE-ASSISTED GROWTH......Page 304
9.3.1 CONTROL OF DIAMETER AND DIAMETER DISPERSION......Page 306
9.3.2 CONTROL OF SHAPE: NOVEL TOPOLOGIES......Page 307
9.3.4 HIERARCHAL 1-D NANOSTRUCTURES......Page 308
9.3.5 AXIAL 9.3.2 CONTROL OF SHAPE: NOVEL TOPOLOGIES......Page 310
9.4.1 MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PHONON TRANSPORT......Page 315
9.4.2 ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF NANOWIRES......Page 316
9.4.3 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NANOWIRES......Page 317
REFERENCES......Page 320
10.1 PREFACE......Page 328
10.2 SYNTHESIS OF INORGANIC NANOTUBES......Page 331
10.3 INORGANIC NANOTUBES AND FULLERENE-LIKE STRUCTURES STUDIED BY COMPUTATIONAL METHODS......Page 337
10.4 STUDY OF THE PROPERTIES OF INORGANIC NANOTUBES IN RELATION TO THEIR APPLICATIONS......Page 341
REFERENCES......Page 343
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 350
11.2.1 HEXAGONAL BORON NITRIDE......Page 351
11.2.2 BORON NITRIDE NANOTUBE STRUCTURE......Page 352
11.2.3 TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY STUDIES OF BORON NITRIDE NANOTUBE CHIRALITY......Page 354
11.3.1 ARC DISCHARGE AND ARC MELTING......Page 357
11.3.2 LASER-ASSISTED METHOD......Page 359
11.3.3 BALL MILLING AND ANNEALING......Page 361
11.3.4 CARBON NANOTUBE SUBSTITUTION......Page 362
11.3.5 CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION AND OTHER THERMAL METHODS......Page 365
11.4 SUMMARY......Page 366
REFERENCES......Page 367
ABSTRACT......Page 372
12.2 POWDER COMPACT......Page 373
12.3.2 HOT PRESSING AND SINTER FORGING......Page 375
12.3.5 TWO-STEP SINTERING......Page 376
12.4.2.1 Normal Sintering......Page 377
12.4.2.3 Nanograined Y2O3......Page 378
12.4.3 KINETICS OF CONSTANT STRUCTURE SINTERING......Page 380
12.5.1 BATIO3 CERAMICS......Page 384
12.5.2 NICUZN FERRITE......Page 386
12.5.3 ZNO VARISTOR......Page 389
12.5.4 SIC CERAMICS......Page 390
12.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 391
REFERENCES......Page 392
ABSTRACT......Page 395
13.2 KINKING IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS......Page 396
13.3 KINKING NONLINEAR ELASTIC SOLIDS......Page 397
13.4 THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF SPHERICAL NANOINDENTATIONS......Page 401
13.5.2 THE MAX PHASES......Page 402
13.5.3 GRAPHITE......Page 405
13.5.4 MICA......Page 407
13.5.5 HEXAGONAL BORON NITRIDE......Page 411
REFERENCES......Page 412
ABSTRACT......Page 415
14.2.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS......Page 416
14.2.2 SILICON CARBIDE AND SILICON NITRIDE......Page 417
14.2.3 ALUMINIUM NITRIDE, BORON NITRIDE, AND BORON CARBIDE......Page 419
14.2.4 TUNGSTEN CARBIDE, TITANIUM CARBIDE (NITRIDE, BORIDE), RELATED COMPOUNDS......Page 420
14.2.5 PROPERTIES OF UFP AND NANOTUBES......Page 421
14.3.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF CONSOLIDATION......Page 424
14.3.2.1 Structure......Page 425
14.3.2.2 Properties......Page 432
14.4.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PREPARATION......Page 439
14.4.2 FILM STRUCTURE AND CONTENT......Page 441
14.4.3.1 Mechanical Properties......Page 445
14.4.3.2 Other Properties......Page 452
14.5 SUMMARY......Page 453
REFERENCES......Page 456
ABSTRACT......Page 465
15.2 SUPERCONDUCTOR PARAMETERS AND MAGNETIC FLUX PINNING......Page 466
15.3 DESIGN OF FLUX PINNING CENTERS......Page 468
15.4.1 POINT DEFECTS......Page 469
15.4.2 DISLOCATIONS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES......Page 470
15.5.1 FORMATION OF COMPOSITES......Page 471
15.5.2 COMPOSITES: SUPERCONDUCTOR MATRIX — SECONDARY-PHASE INCLUSIONS......Page 472
15.5.3 COMPOSITES: SUPERCONDUCTOR MATRIX — FOREIGN-PHASE INCLUSIONS......Page 474
15.5.4 COMPOSITES OBTAINED BY SUPERCONDUCTOR PHASE DECOMPOSITION......Page 477
15.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 478
REFERENCES......Page 479
16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 484
16.2 COMPOSITIONALLY MODULATED MULTILAYER......Page 485
16.3.1 NANOWIRES......Page 489
16.3.2 PILLARS......Page 490
16.3.3 NANOTUBES......Page 491
16.4.1 NANOPARTICLES......Page 494
16.4.2 METAL-MATRIX NANOCOMPOSITES......Page 495
REFERENCES......Page 499
CONTENTS......Page 506
17.2.1.2 Nanoindentation......Page 507
17.2.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction......Page 508
17.2.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 509
17.3.1 STRENGTH......Page 510
17.3.2 TENSILE DUCTILITY......Page 513
17.3.5 LOCALIZED DEFORMATION......Page 515
17.3.6 CRYOGENIC BEHAVIOR......Page 517
17.3.7 CREEP AND SUPERPLASTICITY......Page 518
17.3.8 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE......Page 520
17.4.1.1 Hall–Petch Relationship......Page 522
17.4.1.2 Coble Creep......Page 526
17.4.2.1 Molecular Dynamics Simulations......Page 527
17.4.2.2 Experimental Observations......Page 530
17.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 533
REFERENCES......Page 535
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 540
18.2 SPECIFIC STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES IN NANOCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS......Page 542
18.3 EFFECTS OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES ON PLASTIC FLOW IN NANOCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS: GENERAL VIEW......Page 545
18.4 COMPETITION BETWEEN LATTICE DISLOCATION SLIP AND GRAIN BOUNDARY DIFFUSIONAL CREEP (COBLE CREEP) IN
NANOCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS......Page 546
18.5 GRAIN BOUNDARY SLIDING AND HIGH-STRAIN-RATE SUPERPLASTICITY IN NANOCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS......Page 548
18.6 GRAIN GROWTH PROCESSES IN NANOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL......Page 553
18.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 556
REFERENCES......Page 557
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 562
19.2 THE ELECTROSPINNING PROCESS......Page 563
19.3 KEY PROCESSING PARAMETERS......Page 564
19.5 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSPUN FIBERS......Page 567
19.5.2 NANOFIBERS FOR CHEMICAL/BIO PROTECTIVE MEMBRANES......Page 568
19.5.3 NANOCOMPOSITE FIBERS FOR STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS......Page 571
19.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 572
REFERENCES......Page 573
20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 574
20.2 NANOCOMPOSITE FABRICATION AND NANOTUBE ALIGNMENT......Page 576
20.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES......Page 580
20.4 THERMAL AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES......Page 582
20.5 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY......Page 585
20.6 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND FLAMMABILITY......Page 587
20.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 588
REFERENCES......Page 590
ABSTRACT......Page 594
21.2 DESIGN OF NANOPOROUS POLYMERS......Page 595
21.2.1.1 Track Etching......Page 596
21.2.2.1 Micellar Imprinting......Page 597
21.2.2.2 Nanotemplates......Page 598
21.2.2.4 Self-Assembly of Diblock Copolymers......Page 599
21.2.4 TIPS......Page 601
21.2.6.1 Reactive Systems......Page 604
21.2.7 PIPS......Page 605
21.2.8 MICROEMULSION SYSTEMS......Page 606
21.2.9 MISCIBLE SYSTEMS......Page 607
21.3.1 POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANES FOR FUEL CELLS......Page 608
21.3.4 NANOCOMPOSITES......Page 609
21.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTION......Page 610
REFERENCES......Page 611
22.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 614
22.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE......Page 617
22.3 CURRENT RESEARCH EFFORTS TO IMPROVE BIOMEDICAL PERFORMANCE AT THE NANOSCALE......Page 619
22.4 SOFT BIOMATERIALS......Page 620
22.4.2 SURFACE PROPERTIES......Page 621
22.4.4 NANOSCALE BIOPOLYMER CARRIERS......Page 622
22.5.1 INCREASED OSTEOBLAST FUNCTIONS......Page 624
22.5.2 INCREASED OSTEOCLAST FUNCTIONS......Page 626
22.5.3 DECREASED COMPETITIVE CELL FUNCTIONS......Page 628
22.5.4 INCREASED OSTEOBLAST FUNCTIONS ON NANOFIBROUS MATERIALS......Page 629
22.6 METAL NANOMATERIALS......Page 630
22.7 POLYMERIC NANOMATERIALS......Page 632
22.8 COMPOSITE NANOMATERIALS......Page 633
22.9.1 DRUG DELIVERY......Page 635
22.9.3 BIOLOGICAL MICRO-ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS......Page 637
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 638
REFERENCES......Page 639
CONTENTS......Page 646
23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 647
23.2 SYNTHESIS OF SOLID NANOPARTICLES......Page 648
23.3.1 SURFACTANT/STABILIZER......Page 651
23.3.2 TYPE OF POLYMER......Page 652
23.3.2.2 Poly(lactic acid)......Page 653
23.3.2.3 Poly-e-caprolactone......Page 654
23.3.3 POLYMER CHOICE......Page 655
23.4.1 SIZE AND ENCAPSULATION EFFICIENCY......Page 656
23.4.3 SURFACE MODIFICATION......Page 658
23.5.2 POLYMERIC MICELLES......Page 660
23.6.1 ORAL DELIVERY......Page 662
23.6.4 TUMOR THERAPY......Page 663
23.6.6 PULMONARY DELIVERY......Page 665
23.7.1 MECHANISMS......Page 666
REFERENCES......Page 667
24.1 INTRODUCTION TO FIELD EMISSION AND CRITERIA FOR PRACTICAL ELECTRON SOURCES......Page 674
24.2 CARBON NANOMATERIAL BASED COLD CATHODES......Page 677
24.3.1 POLYMER- LIKE AMORPHOUS CARBON FILMS......Page 680
24.3.2 DIAMOND-LIKE AMORPHOUS CARBON FILMS......Page 681
24.3.3 TETRAHEDRAL AMORPHOUS CARBON FILMS......Page 684
24.3.6 ULTRANANOCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND THIN FILMS......Page 685
24.4 FIELD EMISSION AND DIELECTRIC INHOMOGENEITY......Page 686
24.5 FIELD EMISSION AS A FUNCTION OF CONDITIONING......Page 687
24.6 SURFACE MODIFICATIONS......Page 689
REFERENCES......Page 691
25.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 694
25.2.1 HYBRID DEPOSITION PROCESSES......Page 697
25.2.3 MODERN COATING PRACTICES......Page 699
25.3 STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES......Page 700
25.4 TRIBOLOGY OF NANOSTRUCTURED AND COMPOSITE FILMS......Page 703
25.4.1 SELF- LUBRICATING NANOCOMPOSITE COATINGS......Page 704
25.4.2 SUPERHARD NANOCOMPOSITE FILMS......Page 707
25.4.3.2 Nanostructured Carbide-Derived Carbon......Page 709
25.4.3.3 Nanocomposite Diamond-Like Carbon Films......Page 711
25.5 NOVEL DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR SELF-LUBRICATING NANOCOMPOSITE FILMS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS......Page 712
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 715
REFERENCES......Page 716
26.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CARBONS FOR ENERGY STORAGE......Page 722
26.2.1 PERFORMANCE OF SUPERCAPACITORS......Page 723
26.2.2.1 Activated Carbons......Page 727
26.2.2.2 Porous Carbons Prepared by the Template Technique......Page 728
26.2.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL CAPACITORS FROM CARBONS WITH PSEUDOCAPACITANCE PROPERTIES......Page 729
26.2.4 CARBON NANOTUBES AS A COMPOSITE COMPONENT......Page 732
26.3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 735
26.3.2 MECHANISM OF REVERSIBLE HYDROGEN INSERTION......Page 736
26.3.2.1 Mechanism in Aqueous KOH Medium......Page 737
26.3.2.3 Comparison of Galvanostatic Charge/Discharge in Acidic and Basic Media......Page 739
26.3.2.4 Relation between the Reversible Hydrogen Storage Capacity and the Nanotextural Characteristics of Porous Carbons......Page 740
26.4 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES......Page 742
REFERENCES......Page 743
27.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 748
27.2 PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY FOR TRANSPORT IN DIFFERENT DIMENSIONALITIES......Page 751
27.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS: QUANTUM WELLS......Page 755
27.4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS: QUANTUM WIRES......Page 756
27.5.1 SEGMENTED SUPERLATTICE QUANTUM WIRES......Page 765
27.5.2 QUANTUM-DOT SUPERLATTICES......Page 770
27.5.3 QUANTUM DOTS BETWEEN QUANTUM-POINT CONTACTS......Page 772
27.6 OTHER RELATED TOPICS......Page 774
REFERENCES......Page 777