Multidisciplinary Introduction to Desalination.

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Foreword I
Foreword II
Preface
List of Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
Part I: Introduction
	1: Water Scarcity: Where We Stand
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Global Drivers and Trends
			1.2.1 Climate Change
			1.2.2 Urbanization
			1.2.3 Water as a Human Right
			1.2.4 Water and Conflict
		1.3 “Food–Energy–Water” Nexus
		1.4 Concluding Remarks
		References
	2: Alternative Freshwater Solutions to Desalination
		2.1 Introduction
			2.1.1 Background
			2.1.2 Sustainable Alternatives to Desalination
			2.1.3 Smart and Innovative Alternatives
		2.2 Integrated Freshwater Management Solutions
			2.2.1 Introduction
			2.2.2 Solutions for Delta Areas and Seasonal Dry Areas in General
			2.2.3 Solutions for Agricultural Areas
			2.2.4 Solutions for Natural Reserves
			2.2.5 Solutions for the Built Environment
			2.2.6 An Integrated Solution: Freshwater Wetlands
		2.3 Rainwater Harvesting: Capture and Use of Rain and Storm Water
			2.3.1 Introduction and Principles
			2.3.2 Benefits and Challenges of Rainwater Harvesting
			2.3.3 Components of a Rainwater Harvesting System
				2.3.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting using Natural Components
			2.3.4 Calculating the Potential of Rainwater Harvesting
			2.3.5 Additional Information
		2.4 Reclamation of Fresh Used Water (Greywater Reuse)
			2.4.1 Introduction
			2.4.2 Greywater Reuse
			2.4.3 Used Water Treatment Technologies
				2.4.3.1 Physical–Chemical used Treatment Systems
				2.4.3.2 Biological used Water Treatment Systems
		2.5 Concluding Remarks
		References
	3: Fundamentals of Desalination Technology
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Definitions
		3.3 Unit Operations
		3.4 Desalination Technologies
			3.4.1 Thermal (and Evaporative) Technologies
				3.4.1.1 Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF)
				3.4.1.2 Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
				3.4.1.3 Thermal Vapor Compression (TVC)
				3.4.1.4 Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC)
				3.4.1.5 Membrane Distillation (MD)
				3.4.1.6 Freezing
			3.4.2 Membrane Technologies
				3.4.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO)
				3.4.2.2 Forward Osmosis (FO)
				3.4.2.3 Electrodialysis (ED) and Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR)
			3.4.3 Other Technologies
				3.4.3.1 Hydrate Formation
				3.4.3.2 Ion Exchange (IX)
				3.4.3.3 Capacitive DeIonizaiton (CDI)
				3.4.3.4 Solvent Extraction
				3.4.3.5 De-Humidification
			3.4.4 Hybrid Systems
		3.5 Conclusion
		References
	4: Water Chemistry and Desalinated Water Quality
		4.1 Introduction
			4.1.1 Boron
			4.1.2 Bromide
			4.1.3 Calcium and Magnesium
			4.1.4 Fluoride and Other Supplements
			4.1.5 Organics
			4.1.6 Potassium and Sodium
		4.2 The Carbonate System
		4.3 Water Hardness
		4.4 Sodium Adsorption Ratio
		4.5 Acidity and Buffering Capacity
		4.6 Corrosivity
		4.7 Indexes
		4.8 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Unit Operations
	5: Thermal Processes
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
			5.2.1 Types of MED Tube Arrangements
				5.2.1.1 Horizontal Tube arrangement
				5.2.1.2 Vertical Tube arrangement
				5.2.1.3 Vertically Stacked Tube Bundles
			5.2.2 Conventional MED Process
			5.2.3 Multi-Effect Distillation with Thermal Vapor Compression (MED–TVC)
				5.2.3.1 MED-TVC Process Description
		5.3 Multi-Stage Flash (MSF)
			5.3.1 MSF Configurations
			5.3.2 MSF Condenser Tube Configurations
			5.3.3 MSF Process Description
		5.4 Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD)
			5.4.1 Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC)
			5.4.2 Thermal Vapor Compression (TVC)
		5.5 Other Thermal Processes
			5.5.1 Freezing
			5.5.2 Solar Desalination
			5.5.3 Humidification–Dehumidification
			5.5.4 Membrane Distillation
				5.5.4.1 Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD)
				5.5.4.2 Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD)
				5.5.4.3 Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD)
				5.5.4.4 Sweep Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD)
		5.6 Operational Experience of Thermal Desalination Processes
			5.6.1 Pretreatment and Scale Control
			5.6.2 Efficiency of Thermal Desalination Processes
			5.6.3 Design Experience of Large MSF and MED–TVC Plants
			5.6.4 Impact of Non-Condensable Gases (NCG)
			5.6.5 Material Selection
			5.6.6 Maintenance Procedures
			5.6.7 Evaporator Start-Up
		References
	6: Membrane Desalination Technologies
		6.1 Introduction to Membrane Desalination Technologies
		6.2 Reverse Osmosis
			6.2.1 Introduction to RO Membrane Technology
			6.2.2 Membrane Materials
			6.2.3 Principles and Modeling of Membrane Systems
				6.2.3.1 Membrane Recovery
				6.2.3.2 Permeate Flux
				6.2.3.3 Mass Balance
				6.2.3.4 Membrane Permeation Coefficient (A) and Salt Transport Coefficient (B)
				6.2.3.5 Membrane Rejection
				6.2.3.6 Trans-Membrane Pressure (TMP)
				6.2.3.7 Net Driving Pressure (NDP)
				6.2.3.8 Osmotic pressure
				6.2.3.9 Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)
				6.2.3.10 Silt Density Index (SDI)
			6.2.4 RO Separation System Design
			6.2.5 Restrictions of Membrane Application in Desalination
			6.2.6 Concentration Polarization in Membrane Desalination
			6.2.7 RO Membrane Pretreatment
			6.2.8 RO Membrane Chemical Cleaning
			6.2.9 RO Projection Software
		6.3 Forward Osmosis (FO)
			6.3.1 Introduction to FO Membrane Technology
			6.3.2 Forward Osmosis Membranes and Modules
			6.3.3 Draw Solutions for the FO Process
			6.3.4 CP in FO Processes and FO Membrane Fouling
			6.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the FO Process
		6.4 Electrodialysis (ED) and Electodialysis Reversal (EDR)
			6.4.1 Introduction to ED and EDR Technologies
			6.4.2 ED/EDR Process Design
			6.4.3 ED/EDR Membranes
			6.4.4 Membrane Spacers
			6.4.5 ED/EDR Electrodes
			6.4.6 Comparison between ED/EDR and RO
		References
	7: Pretreatment
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Overview of Granular Media Filtration Technologies
		7.3 Seawater Conditioning Prior to Granular Filtration
		7.4 Seawater Pretreatment Prior to Filtration
			7.4.1 Sedimentation
			7.4.2 Dissolved Air Flotation
		7.5 Selection of Granular Filter Media
		7.6 Selection of the Type of Granular Media Filter
			7.6.1 Removal of Algal Material from Seawater
			7.6.2 Useful Life of the Filter Structure
			7.6.3 Solids Retention Capacity and Handling of Turbidity Spikes
			7.6.4 Costs
		7.7 Membrane Filtration Overview
			7.7.1 Seawater Conditioning and Pretreatment Prior to Membrane Filtration
			7.7.2 Considerations for Selecting Between UF and MF Pretreatment
		7.8 Considerations for Selecting Between Pressure and Vacuum-Driven Membrane Filtration
			7.8.1 Source Water Quality Variations
			7.8.2 Construction Costs and Energy Requirements
		7.9 Lessons Learned from Existing MF/UF Systems
		7.10 Concluding Remarks
		References
	8: Post-Treatment
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Post-Treatment Processes
			8.2.1 Blending
			8.2.2 Direct Dosage of Chemicals
				8.2.2.1 Design Considerations for Ca(OH)2 + CO2 Systems
			8.2.3 Limestone (Calcium Carbonate) Dissolution
			8.2.4 Dolomite Dissolution
		8.3 Disinfection
			8.3.1 The CT Value
			8.3.2 Comparison of Various Disinfection Methods
			8.3.3 Residual Disinfection
			8.3.4 Disinfectant Decay Kinetics
		8.4 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Science and Technology
	9: The Origins of Today’s Desalination Technologies
		9.1 Background
		9.2 The First Tentative Steps
		9.3 The Appearance of an Industry in the 1800s
		9.4 The Early Twentieth Century – Evaporative Advancements
		9.5 The Early Twentieth Century: Membrane Developments
			9.5.1 The Influence of World War II
		9.6 The 1950s
		9.7 The 1960s
		9.8 Post 1960s
		References
	10: Research and Development Management
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 The Customer
		10.3 The Invention
		10.4 Patents
		10.5 Models
		10.6 Data
		10.7 Time
		10.8 The Business Aspect: Costs, Revenue, Profit
		10.9 Conclusion
		References
	11: Membrane Chemistry and Engineering
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Membrane Processes
			11.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO)
				11.2.1.1 RO Membrane made by Phase Inversion
				11.2.1.2 RO Membranes made by Interfacial Polymerization
		11.3 Nanofiltration
			11.3.1 Forward Osmosis (FO)
			11.3.2 Electrodialysis (ED) and Related Processes
			11.3.3 Membrane Distillation (MD)
			11.3.4 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration
		11.4 Configurations
			11.4.1 Membrane Configurations
			11.4.2 Flow Path Considerations
			11.4.3 Module Configurations
		11.5 Future Developments
		References
	12: State-of-the-Art Desalination Research
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 RO Technologies
		12.3 Current State-of-the-Art Materials for Novel Membrane-Based Processes
		12.4 Forward Osmosis (FO)
		12.5 Aquaporin Membranes
		12.6 Thermal-Based Processes
			12.6.1 Membrane Distillation
			12.6.2 Pervaporation (PV)
		12.7 Novel Electrically-Driven Processes
			12.7.1 Capacitive Deionization (CDI)
			12.7.2 Microbial Desalination Cell (MDC)
		References
Part IV: Energy and Environment
	13: Desalination Powered by Renewable and Nuclear Energy Sources
		13.1 Desalination Technologies and Renewable Energy Coupling Schemes
		13.2 Global Overview
		13.3 Solar Energy for Desalination
			13.3.1 Direct Solar Desalination: Solar Stills
			13.3.2 Indirect Solar Desalination Using Solar Collectors
			13.3.3 Solar PV-RO
		13.4 Wind Energy for Desalination
		13.5 Geothermal Energy for Desalination
		13.6 Wave Energy for Desalination
		13.7 Nuclear Energy for Desalination
			13.7.1 Experience with Nuclear Desalination
		13.8 Conclusion and Selection Criteria
		References
	14: Energy Consumption and Minimization
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Energy Issues in Desalination
			14.2.1 Interrelation between Water and Energy
			14.2.2 Energy Demand for Desalination
		14.3 SEC in Membrane-Based Processes
			14.3.1 Energy Consumption in RO Desalination
			14.3.2 Technological Improvements to Minimize Losses and to Increase Energy Recovery
				14.3.2.1 High Efficiency Pumps
				14.3.2.2 Energy Recovery Devices
				14.3.2.3 New Generation Membranes
				14.3.2.4 Plant Design and Operation
				14.3.2.5 Development of Novel Energy-Efficient Desalination Technologies
				14.3.2.6 Utilization of Renewable Energies
		14.4 SEC in Thermal Processes
			14.4.1 Technological Improvements to Increase Energy Efficiency
			14.4.2 Dual-Purpose Power–Desalting Water Plants
		14.5 SEC in Hybrid Systems
		14.6 Renewable Energy (RE) Utilization for Water Desalination
		14.7 Conclusions and Future R&D
		References
	15: Brine Management
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Desalination Brine/Concentrate Characteristics and Disposal
			15.2.1 Seawater Desalination
			15.2.2 Brackish Water Desalination
			15.2.3 Desalination for Potable Water Reuse
		15.3 Technologies for Brine/Concentrate Treatment
			15.3.1 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration
			15.3.2 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal
			15.3.3 Evaporation Ponds and Solar Evaporation
			15.3.4 Distillation and Evaporation Systems
			15.3.5 Membrane Distillation/Crystallization
			15.3.6 Precipitation and Crystallization
			15.3.7 Ion Exchange
			15.3.8 Other Notable Processes
		15.4 Implementation of Brine/Concentrate Minimization
		15.5 Extraction of Constituents from Brine/Concentrate
			15.5.1 Bromine
			15.5.2 Calcium
			15.5.3 Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide
			15.5.4 Lithium
			15.5.5 Magnesium
			15.5.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorous
			15.5.7 Potassium
			15.5.8 Sodium
			15.5.9 Other Notable Commodities
			15.5.10 Economic Considerations
		15.6 Conclusion
		References
	16: Environmental Impacts of Desalination Plants
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Health Issues
			16.2.1 Aesthetics and Water Stability
			16.2.2 Blending Waters
			16.2.3 Nutritionally Desirable Components
			16.2.4 Chemicals and Materials Used in Water Production
		16.3 Safety Issues
		16.4 Environmental Impacts
			16.4.1 Seawater Intakes and Pretreatment
				16.4.1.1 Intakes
				16.4.1.2 Pretreatment
			16.4.2 Reject Streams and Outfalls (Impact of Brine Discharge)
				16.4.2.1 Salinity
				16.4.2.2 Temperature
				16.4.2.3 Antifouling Additives
				16.4.2.4 Residual Biocides
				16.4.2.5 Coagulants
				16.4.2.6 Antiscalants
				16.4.2.7 Metals
				16.4.2.8 Antifoaming Agents (Thermal Plants Only)
				16.4.2.9 Cleaning Chemicals
			16.4.3 Air Quality Impacts
		16.5 Mitigating the Impact of Desalination on the Environment
			16.5.1 Source Water Intake
			16.5.2 Reject Streams
			16.5.3 Energy Use
			16.5.4 Site Selection for Impact Mitigation
		16.6 Avoiding Possible Disturbances
		16.7 Life Cycle Assessment of Desalination Technologies
			16.7.1 LCA Methodology
				16.7.1.1 Phase 1: Goal and Scope Definition
				16.7.1.2 Phase 2: Life Cycle Inventory
				16.7.1.3 Phase 3: Life Cycle Impact Assessment
				16.7.1.4 Phase 4: Interpretation
			16.7.2 Main Results from Desalination LCA Studies
		16.8 Conclusions
		References
Part V: Social and Commercial Issues
	17: Rural Desalination
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Factors that Affect the Success of Rural Desalination Systems
			17.2.1 Water Resources
			17.2.2 Water Needs
			17.2.3 Energy Sources
			17.2.4 Technological Factors
			17.2.5 Social Factors
				17.2.5.1 Community Involvement
				17.2.5.2 Institutions and Social Power
				17.2.5.3 Cultural Issues
				17.2.5.4 Gender Issues
				17.2.5.5 Religious Issues
			17.2.6 Economic Aspects
		17.3 Case Studies
			17.3.1 Case Study of an Unsuccessful Project: Solar Stills on the Greek Island of Kimolos
				17.3.1.1 Case study of a successful project: Photovoltaic reverse osmosis in Ksar Ghilène, Tunisia
		References
	18: Society, Politics, and Desalination
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Separating and Mixing Water
			18.2.1 Political Groups and Separate Waters
		18.3 Social Groups and Collective Costs and Benefits
		18.4 Society, Politics, and Technology
		18.5 Examples of Harmful and Helpful Desalination
			18.5.1 Israel and Singapore
			18.5.2 San Diego and Monterey
			18.5.3 Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates
		18.6 Desalination without Regret
		References
	19: Desalination Costs and Economic Feasibility
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Definition and Breakdown of Desalination Costs
			19.2.1 Capital Costs
			19.2.2 Operational and Maintenance Costs
				19.2.2.1 Disposal costs
				19.2.2.2 Energy costs
		19.3 Determining the Final Cost and Price of Desalinated Water
		19.4 Predictions about Future Desalination Costs
		References
	20: The Business of Desalination
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Key Markets
			20.2.1 The Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
			20.2.2 Europe
			20.2.3 Americas
			20.2.4 Asia Pacific
			20.2.5 Sub-Saharan Africa
		20.3 Technology and Energy
			20.3.1 Equipment and Innovation
		20.4 Finance and Companies
			20.4.1 Desalination Companies
			20.4.2 Finance
		20.5 Looking Forward
		References
Index
About the Editor