Molecular to Global Photosynthesis (Series on Photoconversion of Solar Energy, Vol. 2)

Molecular to Global Photosynthesis......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 8
About the Authors......Page 12
Preface......Page 20
1.1 Introduction......Page 22
1.1.1 Photosynthesis as the creator of fossil fuels and biomass......Page 23
1.1.2 Photosynthesis and the modern atmosphere......Page 24
1.1.3 Fluxes and sinks of photosynthetic carbon......Page 25
1.1.4 Oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis......Page 27
1.2.1 Evolution of photosynthetic organisms......Page 33
1.2.2 Landmarks in photosynthesis research......Page 37
1.3 The ‘blue print’ of the photosynthetic apparatus......Page 39
1.3.1 Reaction centres......Page 40
1.3.2 Light-harvesting systems......Page 41
1.3.3 Photosynthetic membranes......Page 43
1.3.4 Energetics of electron-transfer processes in reaction centres......Page 44
1.3.5 Reaction centre structures......Page 46
1.3.6 The dark reactions of photosynthesis......Page 48
1.4 Energy-storage efficiency of photosynthesis......Page 49
1.4.2 Gross efficiency ignoring respiration......Page 50
1.4.3 Net efficiency allowing for respiration......Page 52
1.4.4 Efficiencies achieved in wild and cultivated crops......Page 54
1.5 Energy and chemicals from biomass......Page 55
References......Page 58
2.1.1 The photosynthetic unit......Page 64
2.1.2 Why are antenna systems necessary?......Page 65
2.2.1 Forster energy transfer......Page 68
2.2.2 Coherent exciton motion......Page 70
2.3.1 Chlorophylls and carotenoids......Page 72
2.4.1 Photosystem I......Page 74
2.4.2 Photosystem II core antenna complex......Page 82
2.4.3 Peripheral LHCll complex of PSII and minor light-harvesting complexes......Page 84
2.4.4 The role of carotenoids in PSII......Page 89
2.4.5 Supraorganisation of light-harvesting systems in Photosystem II......Page 93
2.4.6 Purple photosynthetic bacterial antennae systems......Page 94
2.4.7 Non-protein containing antenna systems of green bacteria (chlorosomes)......Page 97
2.4.8 The FMO complex......Page 101
2.5 Concluding remarks......Page 102
References......Page 119
3 Electron transfer in photosynthesis W. Leibl and P. Mathis......Page 138
3.1 Biological electron transfer......Page 140
3.1.1 Energetics and kinetics of electron transfer......Page 141
3.2.2 The reaction centre of purple photosynthetic bacteria......Page 144
3.2.3 The bc1 complex......Page 155
3.2.4 The reaction centre of green sulphur bacteria and Heliobacteria......Page 157
3.3.1 Overall electron transfer: the Z-scheme......Page 162
3.3.2 Photosystem II reaction centre......Page 164
3.3.3 Photosystem I......Page 180
3.4 Photosynthetic electron transfer: importance of kinetics......Page 184
3.4.1 Electron transfer theory: factors governing kinetics......Page 185
3.4.2 The role of the driving force  G......Page 187
3.4.3 The role of the reorganisation energy......Page 189
3.4.4 The role of the distance r......Page 190
3.4.5 Primary charge separation......Page 192
Editors’ note added in proof......Page 194
References......Page 195
4.1 Environmental and metabolic role......Page 210
4.2 Chloroplast and cell......Page 212
4.3 C3 photosynthesis in its relation to the photochemistry......Page 213
4.4.1 Carboxylation......Page 215
4.4.2 Mechanism......Page 217
4.4.3 Reduction......Page 219
4.4.4 Regeneration......Page 220
4.4.4 The phosphate translocator......Page 223
4.5 Autocatalysis: adding to the triose phosphate pool......Page 224
4.6 Photorespiration......Page 225
4.6.1 Photorespiration via the Mehler-peroxidase reaction......Page 226
4.6.2 Photorespiration via RuBP oxygenase......Page 227
4.7 CO2-concentrating mechanisms......Page 230
4.7.1 CAM plants......Page 231
4.7.2 C4 plants......Page 235
4.8 Survival and efficiencies of photosynthesis......Page 237
References......Page 238
5 Regulation of photosynthesis in higher plants D. Godde and J. F. Bornman......Page 242
5.1.1 Genetic basis......Page 243
5.1.2 Anatomical and morphological leaf features......Page 244
5.2 Adaptation of photosynthetic electron transport to excess irradiance......Page 247
5.2.1 Reversible down-regulation of Photosystem II by non-radiative quenching of excitation energy......Page 248
5.2.2 Irreversible inactivation of PSII......Page 249
5.2.3 Inactivation of the PSI reaction centre......Page 251
5.2.4 Repair of inactivated PSII centres by D1 protein turnover......Page 252
5.3 Regulation of photosynthetic electron transport by CO2 and oxygen......Page 259
5.4 Feedback regulation of photosynthesis......Page 260
5.4.1 Regulation of chloroplast metabolism by phosphate availability......Page 261
5.4.2 Interaction between photosynthesis and assimilate transport......Page 262
5.5.1 Low temperatures......Page 263
5.5.2 High temperatures......Page 265
5.5.2 Arid climates......Page 267
5.5.3 Mineral deficiencies......Page 269
5.6.1 High CO2......Page 271
5.6.2 High tropospheric ozone......Page 273
5.6.3 Enhanced UV-B radiation......Page 274
5.7 Improving plant biomass......Page 279
References......Page 281
6.1 Introduction......Page 308
6.2 From the origin of life to the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis......Page 309
6.2.1 The cyanobacteria......Page 314
6.2.2 The eukaryotes......Page 316
6.3 Photophysiological adaptations to aquatic environments......Page 319
6.3.1 Cell size......Page 322
6.3.2 Light and its utilisation......Page 324
6.4 Quantum yields of photosynthesis in the ocean......Page 327
6.5 Net primary production in the contemporary ocean......Page 328
6.6 Biogeochemical controls and consequences......Page 332
References......Page 335
7.1 Introduction......Page 344
7.2 Microalgae......Page 347
7.2.1 Aquaculture and animal feed......Page 348
7.2.2 Wastewater treatment systems......Page 352
7.2.3 Health food for human consumption......Page 354
7.2.4 Specific products from microalgae......Page 357
7.2.5 Culture systems......Page 368
7.3 Macroalgae......Page 374
7.3.1 Food products and animal feed......Page 375
7.3.2 Wastewater treatment and integrated systems......Page 377
7.3.4 Specific products from macroalgae......Page 378
7.3.5 Culture systems......Page 384
7.4 Concluding remarks......Page 387
References......Page 388
8.1 Photobiological hydrogen production—a useful evolutionary oddity......Page 418
8.2 Distribution and activity of H2 photoproducers......Page 421
8.2.1 Photosynthetic bacteria......Page 422
8.2.2 Cyanobacteria......Page 425
8.2.3 Algae......Page 429
8.3.1 Nitrogenases......Page 431
8.3.2 Hydrogenases......Page 434
8.4 Metabolic versatility and conditions for hydrogen evolution......Page 439
8.5 Quantum and energetic efficiencies of hydrogen photoproduction......Page 443
8.6 Hydrogen production biotechnology......Page 446
8.6.1 Hydrogen-producing systems......Page 447
8.6.2 Photobioreactors......Page 452
Acknowledgments......Page 453
References......Page 456
9.1 Introduction......Page 474
9.1.1 Definitions......Page 475
9.2.1 The importance of renewables......Page 476
9.2.3 Future trends......Page 483
9.2.4 Discounting carbon sinks......Page 486
9.2.4 The contribution of BECs to CO2 abatement......Page 488
9.2.5 Available resources for biomass and energy cropping......Page 489
9.2.6 The policy framework for energy cropping......Page 490
United Kingdom......Page 491
United States of America......Page 493
Brazil......Page 494
Sweden......Page 495
9.3.1 Chemical composition, energy and moisture content......Page 496
9.3.2 Conversion routes, current species used and expected yields......Page 497
Pyrolysis......Page 499
Biodiesel......Page 500
9.3.4 Questions of scale......Page 502
9.4.1 Photosynthesis—an inefficient process......Page 505
9.4.2 Striving for the ideal energy crop......Page 506
9.4.3 Photosynthetic pathways......Page 507
9.4.4 Radiation interception......Page 509
9.4.5 Canopy structure and duration......Page 511
9.4.6 Pests and pathogens......Page 512
9.4.7 Radiation use efficiency......Page 513
9.4.8 Plant–water relations......Page 518
9.4.10 Crop density......Page 519
9.4.11 Nutrient supply, nutrient status and soils......Page 521
9.4.12 Potential sites for energy cropping......Page 522
9.4.13 Soil preparation, crop planting, harvest and storage......Page 523
9.4.14 Energy balance......Page 524
9.5 Conclusions......Page 525
References......Page 531
10 The production of biofuels by thermal chemical processing of biomass A. V. Bridgwater and K. Maniatis......Page 542
10.1 Introduction......Page 543
10.1.1 Biological conversion summary......Page 544
10.1.2 Biomass resources......Page 547
10.2 Thermal conversion processes......Page 548
10.3 Gasification......Page 550
10.3.1 Downdraft—fixed bed reactors......Page 552
10.3.3 Bubbling fluid beds......Page 554
10.3.4 Circulating fluid beds......Page 556
10.3.5 Twin fluid beds......Page 557
10.3.6 Entrained beds......Page 558
10.3.7 Other reactors......Page 560
10.3.8 Pressurised gasification......Page 561
10.3.10 Integrated gasification combined cycles......Page 563
The Varnamo Plant is Sweden......Page 565
The ARBRE Plant in Yorkshire, UK......Page 566
10.3.11 Status of biomass gasification technology......Page 568
10.3.12 Fuel gas quality......Page 570
10.3.14 Hot gas clean-up for particulates......Page 572
10.3.15 Tar destruction......Page 573
Thermal cracking......Page 574
10.3.16 Tar removal......Page 575
10.3.17 Alkali metals......Page 576
10.3.19 Sulphur and chlorine......Page 577
10.3.20 Applications of product gas......Page 578
10.3.21 Electricity......Page 579
10.3.22 Transport fuels and other chemicals......Page 581
10.3.23 Summary......Page 582
10.4.1 Principles......Page 585
10.4.2 Bubbling fluid beds......Page 587
10.4.3 Circulating fluid bed and transported bed reactors......Page 589
10.4.4 Ablative pyrolysis......Page 591
10.4.6 Rotating cone......Page 593
10.4.7 Vacuum pyrolysis......Page 595
10.4.8 Heat transfer......Page 596
10.4.10 Char removal......Page 598
10.4.12 By-products......Page 599
10.4.13 Pyrolysis liquid—bio-oil......Page 600
10.4.14 Physical upgrading of bio-oil......Page 602
10.4.15 Chemical upgrading of bio-oil......Page 603
10.4.16 Application of bio-oil......Page 604
10.4.17 Overall fast pyrolysis system......Page 605
10.4.18 Status and summary......Page 606
10.5 Co-processing......Page 612
10.5.1 Challenges......Page 613
Charcoal from pyrolysis......Page 614
Gas fuel from pyrolysis and gasification......Page 615
The Lahti Plant......Page 616
The BioCoComb Plant in Zeltweg......Page 618
The AMER project......Page 619
10.6 Economics of thermal conversion systems for electricity production......Page 620
10.7 Barriers......Page 623
References......Page 625
11 Photosynthesis and the global carbon cycle D. Schimel......Page 634
11.1 The contemporary carbon cycle......Page 635
11.2 The modern carbon budget......Page 636
11.3 Photosynthesis as a carbon storage process......Page 639
11.4 Assimilation and respiration......Page 640
11.5 CO2 fertilisation......Page 642
11.6 Global warming and the carbon cycle......Page 643
Acknowledgements......Page 644
References......Page 645
12.1 Potential carbon management activities in the forestry and land use sectors......Page 650
12.1.1 Afforestation /reforestation......Page 652
12.1.2 Management and conservation of existing forests......Page 654
12.1.3 Substitution of fossil fuels and materials......Page 655
12.1.4 Other land use activities......Page 656
12.2 Forests and land use in the Kyoto Protocol......Page 657
12.3 Climate change management, carbon assets and liabilities......Page 660
12.4 Experiences and issues arising from land use and forestry projects designed to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions......Page 661
12.5 Conclusions......Page 664
References......Page 665
13.1 Introduction......Page 670
13.1.1 Microbial biotechnology......Page 671
13.1.2 Agricultural biotechnology......Page 672
13.2.1 Scientific developments......Page 673
13.2.2 Population growth and agriculture......Page 676
13.2.3 Global petroleum resources......Page 680
13.2.4 The opportunity......Page 683
13.3 Agbiotech: current applications......Page 684
13.3.1 Marker-assisted selection......Page 685
13.3.2 Transgenic crops: a restricted but growing list of target species......Page 686
13.3.3 Engineering input traits......Page 687
13.3.4 Engineering output traits......Page 693
13.4 Transgenic crops: the future......Page 704
13.4.1 Complex traits......Page 705
13.4.2 Environmental stress......Page 707
13.4.3 Pathway engineering......Page 711
13.4.4 Protein engineering......Page 712
13.4.5 Molecular pharming: the expression of high-value products......Page 714
13.4.6 Transgenic tree crops......Page 720
13.4.7 Microalgae......Page 723
13.5.1 Scientific issues......Page 724
13.5.2 Management and segregation of transgenic crops......Page 730
13.5.3 Addressing public concerns......Page 733
13.6 Developing new crops......Page 736
13.6.1 Challenges for new crops......Page 738
13.6.2 Using biotechnology to develop new crops......Page 739
13.7 Future directions for agricultural biotechnology......Page 740
13.7.1 Commercial background......Page 741
13.7.2 Public versus private research......Page 742
13.7.3 The political dimension......Page 743
13.7.4 Economics: problems of scale and value......Page 745
13.8 Conclusions......Page 747
References......Page 749
I Conversion Factors......Page 762
II Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 763
III List of Symbols......Page 766
Index......Page 768