Models and Theories of Speech Production

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Models and Theories of Speech Production
Table of Contents
Editorial: Models and Theories of Speech Production
	Author Contributions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Emergence of an Action Repository as Part of a Biologically Inspired Model of Speech Processing: The Role of Somatosensory Information in Learning Phonetic-Phonological Sound Features
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Description of the Model
		Neural Representation of Auditory and Somatosensory States
		The Working Modes of the Model
			Production
			Perception
			Learning
		Training Stimuli
		Training Procedure
	Results
		Evaluation of Number of Clear, Unclear, and Occupied Nodes at P-MAP Level
		Evaluation of Ordering of Syllables at P-MAP Level
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	Author Contributions
	References
	Appendix A
	Appendix B
Variability and Central Tendencies in Speech Production
	Introduction
	Experiment
		Method
			Speaker
			Materials
			Procedure
		Measurements
		Statistics
	Results
		Vowel Midpoint
			Distributions and Normality Tests
		Dynamic Formant Patterns
	Discussion
	Data Availability
	Ethics Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	Supplementary Material
	References
Modeling Dimensions of Prosodic Prominence
	Introduction
	Methods
		Speakers, Recording Procedure, Speech Material
		Measures
	Results
		Intonation
		Supra-Laryngeal Articulation
	Dynamical model
		Modeling the Tonal Onglide
		Enriching the Model
	Discussion
	Data Availability
	Ethics Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	Supplementary Material
	References
The Emergence of Discrete Perceptual-Motor Units in a Production Model That Assumes Holistic Phonological Representations
	1. Introduction
		1.1. The Problem
	2. The Core Model
		2.1. Overview
		2.2. The Perceptual-Motor Map
			2.2.1. Perceptual and Motor Spaces
			2.2.2. Perceptual and Articulatory Distance
			2.2.3. Perceptual and Motor Trajectories
		2.3. Initializing the Perceptual-Motor Map
		2.4. Junctures, Clusters, and Articulatory Chunks
		2.5. Perceptual-Motor Integration
			2.5.1. Matching and Selection
			2.5.2. Motor Representations and Convergence
			2.5.3. Adult-Like Production
	3. Discussion
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	Supplementary Material
	References
Motoric Mechanisms for the Emergence of Non-local Phonological Patterns
	Introduction
	The Intentional Planning Mechanism
		A Dynamic Field Model of Intentional Planning
		Empirical Evidence for Intentional Planning
		The Inadequacy of Gestural Blending
	Gestural Selection and Intentional Planning
		The Organization of Gestural Excitation
		Selectional Dissociation and Local Coarticulation
		Sub-Selection Intentional Planning and Anticipatory Posturing
	The Origins of Non-Local Phonological Patterns
		Spreading Arises From Selectional Dissociation
		Agreement Arises From Leaky Gestural Gating
		Deriving the Typology of Agreement and Spreading Patterns
	General Discussion and Conclusion
	Author Contributions
	References
Bridging Dynamical Systems and Optimal Trajectory Approaches to Speech Motor Control With Dynamic Movement Primitives
	Introduction
	Task Dynamics Model
	Dynamic Movement Primitives
		Control System
		Planning System
	Kernel Weight Estimation and Movement Optimization
		Trajectory Tracking Optimization
		Minimum Effort Optimization
		Example: Jaw Control With Perturbation Adaptation
	Coordination of Multiple Gestures
	Discussion
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	References
Modeling Sensory Preference in Speech Motor Planning: A Bayesian Modeling Framework
	1. Introduction
	2. Methods
		2.1. Overview of the Framework
			2.1.1. The GEPPETO Model
			2.1.2. Bayesian Modeling of Speech Motor Planning in GEPPETO
			2.1.3. Motor Planning in the Bayesian Model
		2.2. Implementation of Sensory Perturbations and Adaptation in the Model
			2.2.1. Implementation of Sensory Perturbations
			2.2.2. Implementation of Adaptation
		2.3. Modeling Sensory Preference
			2.3.1. The Target-Based Approach: Modulating the Precision of Sensory Targets
			2.3.2. The Comparison-Based Approach: Modulating the Weight of the Sensory Matching Constraints
	3. Results
		3.1. Simulating Sensory Preference
			3.1.1. Simulation of the Target-Based Approach
			3.1.2. Simulation of the Comparison-Based Approach
		3.2. Equivalence of the Approaches
	4. Discussion
	Data Availability Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	Supplementary Material
	References
The Morphogenesis of Speech Gestures: From Local Computations to Global Patterns
	Introduction
	Turing and Hopf Particulation
	Simultaneous Turing and Hopf Patterning
	Discussion and Conclusions
	Data Availability Statement
	Author Contributions
		References
Economy of Effort or Maximum Rate of Information? Exploring Basic Principles of Articulatory Dynamics
	Introduction
		Hypo- and Hyper-Articulation and Physiological Effort
		Maximum Speed of Articulation: Is It Really Never Approached?
		Hyper-Articulation: Does It Overshoot the Target?
		Economy of Effort: The Stress–Stiffness Enigma
		Maximum Rate of Information – An Alternative Principle
		The Present Study
	Materials and Methods
		Stimuli
			Glide–Vowel Sequences
			Sentences
		Subjects and Recording Procedure
		Measurements
		Analysis
			Displacement Over Duration
			Peak Velocity Over Displacement (vp/d Ratio)
		Interpretation Based on Modeling
			A Generalized Target Approximation Model
			Simulation and Interpretation
	Discussion and Conclusion
	Data Availability Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	References
Native Language Influence on Brass Instrument Performance: An Application of Generalized Additive Mixed Models (GAMMs) to Midsagittal Ultrasound Images of the Tongue
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Ultrasound Imaging of Speech Production and Trombone Performance
			Recording Procedure
			Speech Elicitation
			Musical Passages
		Study Participants
		Data Preprocessing
			Segmentation of Audio Signals
			Selection of Ultrasound Images for Articulatory Analysis
			Tongue Contour Tracing and Outlier Removal
			Rotating and Scaling Ultrasound Traces Across Individuals
		Statistical Analyses
	Results
		Prediction 1a: Tongue Position During Sustained Note Production Will Differ for NZE Players and Tongan Players
		Prediction 1b: Tongan Vowels Will Have Greater Production Variability Than English Vowels
		Prediction 2: NZE Players Will Use a More Centralized Tongue Position During Trombone Performance Than Tongan Players
		Prediction 3: The Tongue Positions Employed During Trombone Performance Will Become Increasingly Closer (Higher) With Rising Pitch
	Discussion
		Hypothesis 1, Prediction 1a: Language Influence on Trombone Performance
		Hypothesis 1, Prediction 1b: Language and Token Position Variability
		Hypothesis 2: Use of a Schwa-Like Vowel Shape by the NZE Players
		Hypothesis 3: Tongue Position During Note Production and Its Relation to Pitch
		What Is a Possible Mechanism for Language Influence on Brass Instrument Performance?
		Articulatory Setting Theory
		Other Constraints on Tongue Shape During Brass Instrument Performance
		Possible Acoustical Consequences of the Observed Language Differences
		Reconsidering the Role of Language Influence on Brass Instrument Performance
		Confounds and Shortcomings of Our Study
		Implications of Our Findings
	Conclusion
	Data Availability Statement
	Ethics Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	Supplementary Material
	References
Noggin Nodding: Head Movement Correlates With Increased Effort in Accelerating Speech Production Tasks
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Participants
		Recordings
		Speech Tasks
		Procedure
		Post-processing
			EMA Data
			Defining Epochs
			Identifying Errors
		Measurements
			Epoch-Based Measures
				Average Mutual Information
				Mutual Power
			Error-Based Measures
		Analysis
	Results
		Error Rates
		Head Movement
		Head Peak Velocity
			Evaluated by Epoch
			Evaluated Over Local Error Neighborhood
		Average Mutual Information
		Mutual Power
		Summary of Results
	Discussion
	Data Availability Statement
	Ethics Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	Supplementary Material
	References
Spatially Conditioned Speech Timing: Evidence and Implications
	Introduction
	Experiment
		Speakers
		Materials
		Equipment
		Stimulus Display
		Post-processing
		Articulatory Analysis
	Results
		Effect of Spatial Position on C-V Lag
		Exemplification of the Main Result
		Extension to Unrounded Vowels
	Discussion
		Downstream Targets
		Neutral Attractors
		Additional Theoretical Implications
	Conclusion
	Data Availability Statement
	Ethics Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	References
The Role of Temporal Modulation in Sensorimotor Interaction
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Data
		Articulatory Modulation Functions
		Acoustic Modulation Functions
		Correlation Methods
	Results
		Characterization of Modulation Functions
		Correlation Analysis
			Surrogate Analysis and Window Width
			Lag Analysis
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	Data Availability Statement
	Author Contrbutions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	References
Spoken Language Development and the Challenge of Skill Integration
	Introduction
		What Are Children’s Units of Spoken Language Organization
		The Development of the Lexical, Phonological, and Motor Domains
	Materials and Methods
		Participants
		Production Task
		Assessment of Phonological Awareness and Vocabulary
		Rhyme Production
		Onset Segment Deletion
		Phoneme Synthesis
		Expressive Vocabulary
	Statistical Analyses
	Results
		Testing for Developmental Differences in Coarticulation Organization
		Descriptive Statistics for Phonological Awareness and Vocabulary
		Interaction Between Phonological Awareness and Coarticulation Degree
		Interaction Between Expressive Vocabulary and Coarticulation Degree
	Discussion
		Age-Related Versus Skill-Based Descriptions of Spoken Language Development
		Nonlinear Interactions Between Vocabulary, Phonological Awareness, and Coarticulatory Organization
		An Integrated-Interactive Approach to Skill Development
		Limitations and Perspectives for Future Research
	Conclusion
	Data Availability Statement
	Ethics Statement
	Author Contributions
		References
A Simple 3-Parameter Model for Examining Adaptation in Speech and Voice Production
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
	Results
		Simulation 1: Upward F1 Perturbation
		Simulation 2: Upward F1 Perturbation With Noise-Masked Trials
		Simulations 3 and 4: F1 and F2 Perturbed Simultaneously
		Simulation 5: Upward and Downward Perturbations of fo
		Simulations 6 and 7: Late Versus Early Measurements of Perturbed fo
		Simulations 8 and 9: Model Parameters From a Gradual Onset Perturbation Fit to a Sudden Onset Perturbation
		Simulation 10: Identifying Representative Parameter Values Across F1 Adaptation Studies
	Discussion
		Role of Somatosensory Feedback in the Absence of Auditory Feedback
		Optimized Model Parameters Change as a Function of Experimental Protocol Variation
		Relationships Between Somatosensory and Auditory Feedback Control Gains
		Predictive Power of SimpleDIVA
		Limitations of the Model
		Future Directions
	Data Availability Statement
	Ethics Statement
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	Supplementary Material
	References
Timing Evidence for Symbolic Phonological Representations and Phonology-Extrinsic Timing in Speech Production
	Introduction
	Key Characteristics and Differences Among Articulatory Models That Deal With Timing Issues, Along With Advantages and Disadvantages of Each
		Spatio-Temporal vs. Symbolic Phonological Representations
			Emergent Surface Timing Characteristics vs. Explicitly Specified Surface Timing Characteristics
			Separate vs. Integral Specification of Spatial and Temporal Characteristics
		Use of General-Purpose, Phonology-Extrinsic Timekeepers and Timing Units vs. Phonology-Intrinsic Timekeepers
		Different Ways of Modeling the Time Course of Individual Movements
		Different Ways of Modeling Coordination
		Different Ways of Modeling Effects of Prosodic Structure on Timing
	Evidence From the Literature That Relates to These Characteristics and Constrains the Choice of Appropriate Model
		Constraints on Lengthening Due to Phrasal Prosody Suggest That Surface Timing Patterns Are Represented, and Not Emergent
		Different Strategies for Manipulating Durations (in e.g., Rate of Speech, Boundary-Related Lengthening, and Quantity), Suggest That Surface Timing Goals Are Explicitly Represented, and Not Emergent
		More Timing Variability for Longer Duration Intervals Suggests the Involvement of General-Purpose Rather Than Phonology-Specific Timekeeping Mechanisms
		The Observation of Less Timing Variability at Movement Endpoints Than at Other Parts of Movement Challenges (Spatio-)Temporal Phonological Representations, and Supports a Model of Speech Production Based on Symbolic Phonological Representations
		The Observation of Less Timing Variability at Movement Endpoints Than at Other Parts of Movement Challenges Onset-Based Movement Coordination
		Summary of Evidence
	Discussion of Ap/Td as the Most Comprehensive, Best-Worked Out Model of Timing and Why It Is Nevertheless Challenged by These Findings
		Constraints on Lengthening Due to Phrasal Prosody
		Different Strategies for Manipulating Durations in, e.g., Rate of Speech, Boundary-Related Lengthening, and Quantity
		More Timing Variability for Longer Duration Intervals
		The Observation of Less Timing Variability at Goal-Related Parts of Movement
			A Challenge to Spatio-Temporal Phonological Representations
			A Challenge to Onset-Based Movement Coordination
	Why the Findings Point Toward a 3-Component Model Based on Symbolic Phonological Representations and Phonology-Extrinsic Timing
	Author Contributions
	Funding
	Acknowledgments
	References
Speech Sound Disorders in Children: An Articulatory Phonology Perspective
	Introduction
	Articulatory Phonology
		Speech Motor Synergies
		Development of Speech Motor Synergies
		Gestures, Synergies and Linguistic Contrast
		Describing Casual Speech Alternations
	Articulatory Phonology and Speech Sound Disorders (Ssd) in Children
		Speech Delay
			Gliding and Vocalization of Liquids
			Stopping of Fricatives
			Vowel Addition and Final Consonant Deletion
			Cluster Reduction
			Weak Syllable Deletion
			Velar Fronting and Coronal Backing
			Prevocalic Voicing and Postvocalic Devoicing
		Articulation Impairment
		Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS)
		Speech-Motor Delay
		Developmental Dysarthria
	Clinical Relevance, Limitations and Future Directions
	Conclusion
	Author Contributions
	References
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