Microstructural Principles of Food Processing Engineering (Food Engineering Series)

Color Plates......Page 0
Front Matter......Page 2
Preface......Page 5
History of Food Microstructure Studies......Page 7
The Compound Microscope......Page 11
Sample Preparation and Stains......Page 12
Phase/Differential Interference Contrast......Page 14
Polarizing Microscopy......Page 15
Fluorescence Microscopy......Page 18
Hot-Stage Microscopy......Page 20
Microspectrophotometry......Page 22
Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy......Page 25
Introduction......Page 28
Sample Preparation......Page 31
Transmission Electron Microscopy in Food Science......Page 32
Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 36
Introduction......Page 37
Principles......Page 38
Sample Preparation......Page 40
Cryomicroscopy......Page 45
Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy......Page 49
Scanning Probe Microscopy......Page 51
X-Ray Microanalysis......Page 54
Immunolocalization Techniques......Page 56
Light Scattering......Page 57
Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 64
Spectroscopy and Microscopy......Page 66
Electron Energy Loss Microscopy......Page 67
Other Microscopy Techniques......Page 70
Conclusions......Page 72
Introduction......Page 77
Video Cameras......Page 78
Filters......Page 79
Segmentation......Page 81
Measurement Analysis......Page 83
Color versus Monochrome......Page 84
Analyzing Particles in Foods......Page 85
Particle Size......Page 87
Using Microscopy Techniques......Page 89
Conclusions......Page 90
Computer Vision......Page 92
Fractal Analysis......Page 93
Introduction......Page 98
Nomenclature......Page 100
Size and Shape of Polymers......Page 101
Proteins as Structural Polymers......Page 102
Proteins as Storage Polymers......Page 103
Polysaccharides as Structural Polymers......Page 104
Lignins......Page 107
A Little Thermodynamics of Solutions......Page 108
The Flory-Huggins Theory......Page 110
Phase Separation......Page 111
The Excluded Volume Effect......Page 113
Phases and Phase Diagrams......Page 114
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)......Page 115
The Williams-Landel-Ferry Equation......Page 117
The Glassy State......Page 119
The Crystalline State......Page 121
Rubberlike Elasticity......Page 123
Polymers and the Liquid Crystalline State......Page 124
Interfaces and Colloids......Page 125
Thermodynamics of Surfaces......Page 126
Contact Angle, Wetting, and Related Phenomena......Page 127
Adhesion......Page 129
Emulsions and Their Formation: Homogenization......Page 130
Stabilization of Colloidal Particles......Page 132
Creaming and Phase Separation......Page 134
On Structures and Properties......Page 135
Structure-Property Relationships......Page 136
Rheology: Empirical Models......Page 137
The Effect of the Dispersed Phase......Page 139
A Few More Definitions of Viscosity......Page 141
A Structural Rheological Model for Foods......Page 142
Linear Viscoelasticity......Page 144
Dynamic Testing and Structure......Page 145
Regions of Viscoelastic Behavior......Page 146
Simple Mechanical Relationships......Page 147
Stress-Strain Relationships and Fracture......Page 149
Concepts of Rubberlike Elasticity......Page 151
Composites......Page 152
Cellular Structures......Page 154
Food Structure in the Mouth and Beyond......Page 156
Water and Ice......Page 161
Proteins......Page 162
Protein Conformation and Function......Page 164
Natural Protein Assemblies......Page 165
Engineered Protein Assemblies......Page 168
Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides)......Page 170
Polysaccharides (Gums)......Page 171
Starch......Page 172
Cells and Cell Membranes......Page 175
Cell Membranes......Page 177
Structural Aspects of Animal Tissue......Page 180
Structural Aspects of Plant Tissue......Page 184
Structure and Food Technology......Page 190
How Does Nature Form Structures?......Page 191
Recognizing Hierarchical Structures in Foods......Page 192
Objectives of Food Structuring......Page 193
An Example of Food Structuring: Soybeans......Page 195
Freezing of Foods......Page 196
Structuring Water at Subfreezing Temperatures......Page 202
Dough Formation and Baking......Page 205
Crystallization and Tempering of Chocolate......Page 208
Comminuted Meat Products......Page 211
Mayonnaise......Page 213
Rationale......Page 214
Myosystems......Page 215
Phytosystems......Page 216
Lactosystems......Page 219
Texturization of Proteins......Page 221
The Extrusion, Cooking, and Forming of Starches......Page 222
The Use of State Diagrams in Extrusion......Page 224
Margarine......Page 225
Fat Replacers......Page 226
Looking at Nature Again......Page 227
Stability of Frozen Foods......Page 228
Control of Lipid Oxidation......Page 231
What Is a Gel?......Page 233
Classification of Gels......Page 234
Alginates......Page 235
Myosin......Page 236
Mixed Gels......Page 237
Copolymer Gels......Page 239
Active Phase-Separated Starch Gels......Page 240
The Microstructure of Gels......Page 241
Transport Properties......Page 243
An Experimental Oddity......Page 244
Interpretation......Page 245
The Mechanical Model: The Structure-Property Relationships......Page 246
Measurement of Texture......Page 255
Sensory Procedures......Page 258
Instrumental Procedures......Page 259
Structural Aspects of Food Texture......Page 263
Quality and Structure......Page 272
Membrane Effects in Postharvest Physiology......Page 274
Respiration Effects in Postharvest Physiology......Page 277
Storage and Processing......Page 281
Bean Hardening......Page 283
Controlled Atmosphere Storage......Page 287
Post-Mortem Physiology......Page 290
Processing......Page 292
Conclusions......Page 293
The Building Blocks......Page 296
Milk Fat and the Fat Globule......Page 298
Proteins and the Casein Micelle......Page 300
Lactose and Salts......Page 301
Milk as a Colloidal System......Page 302
Milk Gels......Page 304
Homogenization of Fat Globules......Page 305
Yogurt......Page 306
Soft Cheeses......Page 308
Hard Cheeses......Page 309
Butter......Page 311
Whipped Cream......Page 313
Ice Cream......Page 315
Dried Dairy Powders......Page 320
Spun and Extruded Products......Page 321
Conclusions......Page 322
Solid-Liquid Extraction or Leaching......Page 327
Characteristics of Food Extraction......Page 328
Extraction as a Diffusional Process......Page 330
Diffusion Coefficients......Page 331
Relating Diffusion Coefficients to Structure......Page 332
Use of Mass Transfer Coefficients......Page 334
Plant Cells and Extraction......Page 335
A Little More Engineering......Page 337
Diffusion through the Solid Matrix......Page 340
Solvent Extraction of Oilseeds......Page 343
Expression of Oil-Bearing Materials......Page 348
Malting and Extraction of Wort......Page 349
Extraction of Sugar from Beefs......Page 351
Percolation of Coffee......Page 352
Extraction of Toxic and Antinutritional Factors......Page 354
Extraction with Supercritical Fluids......Page 355
Structural Degradation by Thermal Energy and Radiation Waves......Page 357
Structural Degradation by Enzymes......Page 358
Restructuring......Page 359
Background and Scope......Page 362
Diffusion Models......Page 363
Combined Diffusional-Kinetic Models......Page 366
A Comment on Numerical Techniques......Page 368
Water Activity and Sorption Isotherms......Page 376
Interpretation of Sorption Isotherms......Page 377
Hysteresis......Page 379
Sorption Phenomena in Foods......Page 380
Water Activity and Structural Stability......Page 381
Heat and Mass Transfer Mechanisms......Page 382
Microstructure and Moisture Distribution During Drying......Page 384
Mathematical Modeling......Page 387
Heat and Mass Transfer Properties and Microstructure......Page 389
Improved Drying Models......Page 391
Microstructural Changes During Drying......Page 392
Use of Microscopy for the Interpretation of Microstructural Changes During Drying......Page 394
Modeling Osmotic Dehydration......Page 400
Applications......Page 403
Microencapsulation......Page 404
Caking......Page 406
The Frying Process......Page 407
Frying Kinetics......Page 409
Microstructural Aspects of Frying......Page 410
Introduction......Page 415
A Paradigm Shift in Food Technology......Page 417
What Are Structure-Property Relationships?......Page 419
Which Are the Properties?......Page 420
Probing Microstructure in Food Science, Technology, and Engineering......Page 421
The Microstructural Approach......Page 422
Color Plates......Page 426
A......Page 433
C......Page 434
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H......Page 442
I......Page 443
L......Page 445
M......Page 446
N......Page 448
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Q......Page 451
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Y......Page 458