Microplastic Pollution: Environmental Occurrence and Treatment Technologies

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgment
Contents
Part I: Introduction to Plastic pollution
	Chapter 1: Emerging Issue of Microplastic in Sediments and Surface Water in South Asia: A Review of Status, Research Needs, and Data Gaps
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Microplastic Distribution in the Water Bodies of South Asia
		1.3 Microplastics in the Sediments of South Asia
		1.4 Abundance of Microplastics in South Asia
		1.5 Types of Microplastics Based on Shape in South Asia
		1.6 Sources of Microplastics in South Asia
		1.7 Microplastic Trends Based on Polymer Type in South Asia
		1.8 Research Gaps Found in South Asia
		1.9 Possible Research Solution
		1.10 Research Needs Regarding MP Quantification
		1.11 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 2: Extraction, Enumeration, and Identification Methods for Monitoring Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Data Collection
			2.2.1 Selection of Sampling Areas and Main Parameters During the Process
			2.2.2 Sampling for Microplastics
			2.2.3 Contamination
			2.2.4 Laboratory Conditions and Main Parameters
		2.3 Microplastics Sampling Methods in Aquatic Ecosystems
			2.3.1 Sampling Methods in Water Surface and Water Column
			2.3.2 Sampling Methods in Sediment
		2.4 Separation of Microplastics from Samples
			2.4.1 Sieving
			2.4.2 Elutriation
		2.5 Density Separation
			2.5.1 Flotation
			2.5.2 Removal of Organic Matter
				2.5.2.1 Acid and Alkaline Digestion
				2.5.2.2 Wet Oxidation Peroxide (WPO)
				2.5.2.3 Treatment with Fenton Reagent (Fe2 + with H2O2)
		2.6 Filtration
		2.7 Identification, Chemical Characterization, and Quantification
			2.7.1 Microscopy Analysis
			2.7.2 Instrumental Analysis of Microplastics
				2.7.2.1 Infrared Microscopy: Transmission/ATR/Micro-Fourier Infrared Transform (μ-FTIR) Spectroscopy
				2.7.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy
				2.7.2.3 Thermo-analytical Methods: Pyrolysis Mass Spectrometry Gas Chromatography (Pyr-GC/MS) and Thermo-extraction Desorption Gas Chromatography (TED-GC/MS))
		2.8 Results and Accurate Reporting Criteria
		2.9 Recommendations and Future Works
		References
	Chapter 3: Monitoring of Microplastic Pollution
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Microplastic Sampling
			3.2.1 Non-discrete Sampling Instruments
				3.2.1.1 Nets
				3.2.1.2 Pumping Systems
			3.2.2 Discrete Sampling Instruments
			3.2.3 Limitations
		3.3 Extraction of Microplastic
		3.4 Identification of Microplastic
			3.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman Spectroscopy
			3.4.2 Pyr-GC MS
			3.4.3 Remote Sensing Technology
		3.5 Monitoring Through Marine Animals
		3.6 Proposed Solution to Microplastic Pollution
		References
	Chapter 4: Polymer Types of Microplastic in Coastal Areas
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Polymer Composition of MPs in Coastal Ecosystems
		References
	Chapter 5: Evaluation of Different Metrics to Study Microplastics as an Environmental Forensic Tool
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Source, Sinks, and Pathways
		5.3 Role of Metrics in Environmental Forensics
		5.4 Water as Metrics for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool
		5.5 Soil as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool
		5.6 Air as a Metric for the Study of Microplastics as an Environmental Forensics Tool
		5.7 Forensic Techniques to Investigate Microplastic Origin
		5.8 Microplastic Detection Applications in Different Fields
			5.8.1 Environmental Management Systems
			5.8.2 Agricultural and Geological Applications
			5.8.3 Epidemiological Studies
			5.8.4 Urban Development
			5.8.5 Legislation
		5.9 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Environmental Occurrence
	Chapter 6: Atmospheric Microplastic Distribution, Fate, and Behavior in Context to Pollution
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Dynamic Nature of Plastic
		6.3 The Behavior of Microplastics in a Terrestrial Environment
		6.4 Terrestrial Sources of Microplastics
			6.4.1 Indoor Sources of Microplastic
			6.4.2 Personal Care Products
			6.4.3 Paints
			6.4.4 Landfill
			6.4.5 Tire Wear
			6.4.6 City Dust
			6.4.7 Agricultural
			6.4.8 Industrial
			6.4.9 Wastewater Treatment Facility
		6.5 Ecological Impact of Microplastics
		6.6 Human Health Impact of Microplastic
		6.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Microplastic (MP) Pollution in the Context of Occurrence, Distribution, Composition and Concentration in Surface Waters and Sediments: A Global Overview
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Microplastic (MP) Pollution in Surface Waters
			7.2.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Surface Waters
			7.2.2 MP Composition in Surface Waters
			7.2.3 MP Concentration in Surface Waters
		7.3 Microplastic Pollution in the World Sediments
			7.3.1 MP Occurrence and Distribution in Sediments
			7.3.2 MP Composition in Sediments
			7.3.3 MP Concentration in Sediments
		7.4 Conclusion
		References
			Web
	Chapter 8: Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea: An Overview of the Current Situation
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Microplastics
		8.3 The Black Sea
		8.4 The Current Status of Microplastic Pollution in the Black Sea
		8.5 Abundance
		8.6 Sampling
		8.7 Analysing
		8.8 Microplastics in Marine Organisms of the Black Sea
		8.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Occurrence and Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater Resources
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Basic Source of Microplastics in Freshwater
		9.3 Atmospheric Microplastics as a Source of Microplastic in Water
			9.3.1 Atmospheric Microplastic Accordance
			9.3.2 Atmospheric Microplastic Characteristics and Sources
			9.3.3 Atmospheric Microplastic Entrance to Water
		9.4 Microplastics in Soil as a Source of Microplastic in Water
			9.4.1 Accordance of Microplastics in Soil
			9.4.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics in Soil
			9.4.3 Soil’s Microplastic Entrance to Water
		9.5 Accordance of Microplastics in Freshwater
		9.6 Characteristics of Microplastics in Freshwater
		9.7 Health Problems of Microplastics in Water
		9.8 Fate of Microplastics in Freshwater
		9.9 Technologies for Microplastic Removal from Water
			9.9.1 Microplastic Removal in Wastewater Treatment Plants
			9.9.2 Membrane Filters for Microplastic Removal
			9.9.3 Adsorption and Ingestion of Microplastics by Aquatic Organisms
			9.9.4 Microplastic Removal by Coagulation
			9.9.5 Microplastic Degradation
			9.9.6 Controlling Microplastic Entrance to the Environment
		9.10 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 10: Occurrence of Microplastics in Freshwater
		10.1 Introduction
			10.1.1 Freshwaters
			10.1.2 The Beginning of Microplastic Research in Freshwater
		10.2 Microplastic Sampling and Analysis
			10.2.1 Water and Sediment Sampling
			10.2.2 Water and Sediment Treatment
			10.2.3 Biota Sampling and Treatment
			10.2.4 Chemical Characterization
		10.3 Spatio-temporal Distribution of Microplastics in Freshwater
			10.3.1 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Water
			10.3.2 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Waters
			10.3.3 Spatial Occurrence of Microplastics in Sediment
			10.3.4 Temporal Sampling of Microplastics in Sediment
		10.4 Origin of Pollution
		10.5 Impact of Microplastics to Freshwater Living Resources
			10.5.1 Freshwater Taxa Examined by Lentic or Lotic Habitat
			10.5.2 The Taxa Examined by Scientific Literature
				10.5.2.1 Microorganisms
				10.5.2.2 Invertebrates
				10.5.2.3 Vertebrates
				10.5.2.4 Plants
		10.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 11: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Coastal Areas
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Microplastics
			11.2.1 Primary Microplastics
			11.2.2 Secondary Microplastics
		11.3 Coastal Systems
		11.4 Microplastics in Coastal Systems
			11.4.1 Seagrass
			11.4.2 Microplastics in the Beach Sediments
			11.4.3 Microplastics in Estuary Areas
		References
	Chapter 12: Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Areas
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 General Aspects of the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Coastal Environment
			12.2.1 Sources and Sinks of Plastics in Coastal Areas
			12.2.2 Key Processes in the Modeling of the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Coastal Environment
			12.2.3 Type of Coastal System
			12.2.4 Particle Properties
			12.2.5 Fate and Transport Models in Coastal Areas
				12.2.5.1 Eulerian Transport Models
				12.2.5.2 Lagrangian Transport Models
				12.2.5.3 Source-Pathway-Receptor-Consequence Models
				12.2.5.4 Data Requirements and Tools for Numerical Simulations
		12.3 Final Remarks
		References
	Chapter 13: Occurrence of Microplastic Pollution in Marine Water
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Microplastic
		13.3 Types of Microplastic
			13.3.1 Primary Microplastic
			13.3.2 Secondary Microplastic
			13.3.3 Nanoplastic
		13.4 Sources
			13.4.1 Primary Sources
			13.4.2 Secondary Sources
				13.4.2.1 Microplastic Dust
				13.4.2.2 Water Treatment Plants
				13.4.2.3 Wear and Tear from Normal Use
				13.4.2.4 Secondary Microplastic
		13.5 Occurrence
		13.6 Proposed Solution
		References
Part III: Risk Assessment and Health Impact
	Chapter 14: Microplastic Pollution and Contamination of Seafood (Including Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Microplastics (MPs) in Seafood (Fish, Sharks, Mussels, Oysters, Clams, Prawns, Shrimps and Seaweeds): A Global Overview
			14.2.1 Atlantic Ocean
				14.2.1.1 MP-Contaminated Mesopelagic Marine Fishes
			14.2.2 Australia
				14.2.2.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fishes and Marine Prawns Including Different Trophic/Feeding Levels (Carnivores, Detrivores) and Habitats (Benthopelagic, Demersal, Reef-Associated).
			14.2.3 Baltic Sea
				14.2.3.1 MP Contaminated Demersal and Pelagic Marine Fishes
			14.2.4 Bangladesh
				14.2.4.1 MP Contaminated Benthopelagic, Demersal, Pelagic Marine Fishes and Shallow and Offshore Marine Shrimps
			14.2.5 Belgium
				14.2.5.1 MP Contaminated Molluscs (Mussels) and Crustaceans (Shrimps)
			14.2.6 Brazil
				14.2.6.1 MP Contaminated Freshwater Fishes Including Detrivores, Herbivores, Invertivores, Omnivores and Estuarine Catfishes
			14.2.7 Canada
				14.2.7.1 MP Contaminated Molluscs (Clams, Oysters, Farmed and Wild Blue Mussels)
			14.2.8 Chile
				14.2.8.1 MP Contaminated Marine and Coastal Fishes (Pelagic, Omnivore, Herbivore and Carnivore) and Crabs
			14.2.9 China
				14.2.9.1 MP Contaminated Seaweed, Freshwater Fishes (Benthopelagic), Seawater Fishes (Pelagic, Benthopelagic, Benthic, Demersal, Carnivore) and Mussels
			14.2.10 Fiji
				14.2.10.1 MP Contaminated Demersal, Benthopelagic, Reef, Carnivore and Detrivore Marine Fishes
			14.2.11 France
				14.2.11.1 MP Contaminated Marine and Freshwater Fishes
			14.2.12 Gulf of Mexico
				14.2.12.1 MP Contaminated Urbanised and Non-urbanised Fishes (Benthic, Pelagic)
			14.2.13 India
				14.2.13.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fishes and Mussels
			14.2.14 Indonesia
				14.2.14.1 Ms Contaminated Marine Fishes
			14.2.15 Iran
				14.2.15.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Benthic, Demersal, Pelagic, Reef-Associated, Carnivores), Molluscs (Snails, Clams, Oysters) and Crustacean (Green Tiger Prawn)
			14.2.16 Italy
				14.2.16.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fishes (Benthopelagic, Pelagic and Benthic/Demersal
			14.2.17 Japan
				14.2.17.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic Marine Fish (Anchovy)
			14.2.18 Malaysia
			14.2.19 MP Contaminated Dried Eviscerated Fishes and Pelagic, Pelagic-Neritic, Benthopelagic Demersal Marine Fishes
			14.2.20 Mediterranean Sea
				14.2.20.1 MP Contaminated Marine Large Pelagic Fish
			14.2.21 The Netherlands
				14.2.21.1 MPs Contaminated Molluscs (Blue Mussel, Pacific Oyster, Periwinkle and Sand Hopper)
			14.2.22 North Pacific Central Gyre
				14.2.22.1 MP Contaminated Mesopelagic and Epipelagic Fish Species
			14.2.23 North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
				14.2.23.1 MP Contaminated Mesopelagic Fish Species
			14.2.24 North Sea
				14.2.24.1 MP Contaminated Benthopelagic, Demersal and Pelagic Marine Fishes
			14.2.25 Norway
				14.2.25.1 MP Contaminated Atlantic Cod Fish
			14.2.26 Portugal
				14.2.26.1 MP Contaminated Bathydemersal, Benthopelagic, Demersal, Pelagic-Neritic Marine Fishes and Sharks
			14.2.27 Saudi Arabia
				14.2.27.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Coral Reef, Demersal, Pelagic and Seagrass Habitat Species)
			14.2.28 Scotland
				14.2.28.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Coral Reef, Seagrass, Demersal and Pelagic Fish Species)
			14.2.29 South Pacific Subtropical Gyre
				14.2.29.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Benthopelagic, Benthic and Pelagic Species)
			14.2.30 Spain
				14.2.30.1 MP Contaminated Marine Fish (Demersal and Pelagic Species)
			14.2.31 Tanzania
				14.2.31.1 MP Contaminated Freshwater Fish (Tilapia)
			14.2.32 Thailand
				14.2.32.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic and Demersal/Benthic Marine and Freshwater Fishes
			14.2.33 Turkey
				14.2.33.1 MP Contaminated Benthopelagic, Demersal, Pelagic, Pelagic-Neritic and Reef-Associated Marine Fishes
			14.2.34 The United Kingdom (UK)
				14.2.34.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic and Demersal Marine Fishes and Sharks
			14.2.35 The United States of America (USA)
				14.2.35.1 MP Contaminated Pelagic and Demersal Marine Fishes and Oysters
			14.2.36 Vanuatu
		14.3 Conclusion
		References
			Web
	Chapter 15: Impacts of Plasticizers on Riverine Ecological Integrity in Context to Sustainability Challenges
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Classification of Plasticizers
		15.3 Theories of Plasticization
			15.3.1 Lubricity Theory
			15.3.2 Gel Theory
			15.3.3 Free Volume Theory
		15.4 Applications of Plasticizers
		15.5 Problems Associated with Plasticizers
		15.6 Phthalate Esters (PAEs)
			15.6.1 Metabolism of Phthalate
			15.6.2 Exposure to Phthalate
			15.6.3 Toxicity
			15.6.4 Occurrence in Water
			15.6.5 Occurrence in Sediments
			15.6.6 Occurrence in Soil
		15.7 Bisphenol A
			15.7.1 Metabolism of BPA
			15.7.2 Exposure to BPA
			15.7.3 Toxicity
			15.7.4 Occurrence in Water
			15.7.5 Occurrence in Sediments
			15.7.6 Occurrence in Soil
		15.8 Disintegration of Plasticizers in Riverine Ecosystems
		15.9 Worldwide Efforts to Combat the Issue
		15.10 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 16: Consequences of Plastic Trash on Behavior and Ecology of Birds
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Foraging Strategy and Plastic Ingestion
		16.3 Plastic Incorporation in Nests and Entanglement
		16.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: Risk Assessment of Microplastic Pollution
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Microplastic Pollution in the Marine Ecosystem
			17.2.1 Sources of MP in Marine Ecosystem
			17.2.2 Occurrence of MP in Marine Ecosystem
			17.2.3 Impact of MP Pollution in Marine Ecosystem
		17.3 Microplastic Pollution in the Freshwater Ecosystem
			17.3.1 Sources of MP in Freshwater Ecosystem
			17.3.2 Occurrence of MP in Freshwater Ecosystem
			17.3.3 Impact of MP Pollution in Freshwater Ecosystem
		17.4 Microplastic Pollution in the Terrestrial Ecosystem
			17.4.1 Sources of MP in Terrestrial Ecosystem
			17.4.2 Occurrence of MP in Terrestrial Ecosystem
			17.4.3 Impact of MP Pollution in Terrestrial Ecosystem
		17.5 Future Perspectives
		17.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 18: The Ecotoxicological Effects of Microplastics on Trophic Levels of Aquatic Ecosystems
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Environmental Fate of Microplastics in Aquatic Ecosystems
		18.3 Ecotoxicity Tests and Microplastics
		18.4 Factors that Affect Toxicity of Microplastics
			18.4.1 Organisms in Toxicity of Microplastics
			18.4.2 Exposure
				18.4.2.1 Duration of Exposure
				18.4.2.2 Endpoints of Exposure
				18.4.2.3 Exposure Concentration
			18.4.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Microplastics
				18.4.3.1 Size
				18.4.3.2 Colour
				18.4.3.3 Density
				18.4.3.4 Microplastics Shape
				18.4.3.5 Surface Charge of Microplastics
				18.4.3.6 Polymer Types of Microplastics
		18.5 Recommendations and Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 19: Ecological and Public Health Effects of Microplastics Pollution
		19.1 Sources of MP Pollutants
		19.2 Environmental Fate and Exposure to Humans and the Environment
			19.2.1 Ingestion Pathways in Humans
			19.2.2 Toxicity Profile
			19.2.3 Possible Effects to Human Health
		19.3 Ecological Risks Estimated from MP Exposure Data
		19.4 Conclusions
		References
Part IV: Treatment Technologies
	Chapter 20: Microplastics as an Emerged Contaminant and Its Potential Treatment Technologies
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Microplastics Occurrence in Various Environmental Media
			20.2.1 Terrestrial Media
			20.2.2 Aquatic Media
			20.2.3 Atmospheric Media
		20.3 Microplastics in Biota
			20.3.1 Fishes
			20.3.2 Mollusks
			20.3.3 Crustaceans
			20.3.4 Other Biotic Forms
			20.3.5 Other Consumables Contaminated by Microplastics
		20.4 Health Impacts
		20.5 Treatment Technologies
			20.5.1 Landfills
			20.5.2 Sewage Treatment Plants
		20.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 21: Green Treatment Technologies for Microplastic Pollution
		21.1 Introduction
			21.1.1 Plastic Waste as a Major Problem of the Environment
			21.1.2 Occurrence and Pathway of Microplastics in Environments
		21.2 Microplastics, Wastewater Treatment Plants and Future Developments
			21.2.1 Current Scenario on Treatment of Microplastics
			21.2.2 Potential Impact of Microplastics in Nature
		21.3 Green Strategies to Control Microplastics
			21.3.1 Prevention of Microplastic Pollution
			21.3.2 Mitigation of Microplastic Pollution
			21.3.3 Removal of Microplastics
			21.3.4 Physical Methods for the Removal of Microplastics
				21.3.4.1 Filtration Methods
				21.3.4.2 Membrane Technology
			21.3.5 Biological Methods for the Subtraction of Microplastics
				21.3.5.1 Biosorption of Microplastics
				21.3.5.2 Microbial Degradation of Microplastics
				21.3.5.3 Microbial Ingestion
				21.3.5.4 Plant Uptake of Microplastics
				21.3.5.5 Behavior Changes
			21.3.6 Application Fields of Green Treatment Technologies for Microplastics Pollution
			21.3.7 Cleaning and Remediation of the Environment
			21.3.8 Environmental 4Rs Concept
		21.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 22: Chemical Technologies to Degrade Microplastic Pollution
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Microplastics (MPs)
		22.3 Types of Microplastic
			22.3.1 Primary Microplastics
			22.3.2 Secondary Microplastics
		22.4 Sources of Microplastic Pollution
			22.4.1 Textile Industry
			22.4.2 Cosmetics and Personal Care Products
			22.4.3 Wastewater Treatment Plants
			22.4.4 Landfills
			22.4.5 Vehicle Tire Wear
			22.4.6 Paints
			22.4.7 Municipal Debris
			22.4.8 Fishing Waste
		22.5 Impacts of Microplastic Pollution
			22.5.1 Marine Environment
			22.5.2 Food
			22.5.3 Atmosphere
			22.5.4 Soil
		22.6 Chemical Technologies for the Degradation of MP Pollution
			22.6.1 Advance Oxidation Processes
				22.6.1.1 Photocatalysis
				22.6.1.2 Photodegradation
					Degradation of Polypropylene
					Photodegradation of Polyethylene
				22.6.1.3 Chlorination
			22.6.2 Coagulation/Agglomeration
			22.6.3 Electrocoagulation
			22.6.4 Chemical Weathering
		References
	Chapter 23: Bibliometric Analysis of Emerging Trends in Research on Microplastic Pollution in Post-Paris Agreement and Post-COVID-19 Pandemic World
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Methodology for Bibliometric Analysis
			23.2.1 Database Selection
			23.2.2 Search Strategy to Retrieve the Required Data
			23.2.3 Validation of the Search Queries for Retrieval of Relevant Articles/Documents
		23.3 Results of the Bibliometric Analysis
			23.3.1 Most Productive Countries in Microplastic Pollution Research
				23.3.1.1 Bibliometric Analysis of the Most Productive Countries in Research on Microplastic Pollution
				23.3.1.2 Bibliometric Coupling Analysis Based on Countries
				23.3.1.3 Bibliographic Analysis of Country Collaboration on Microplastic Pollution
				23.3.1.4 Three-Factor Analysis of Countries, Keywords, and Sources
			23.3.2 The Most Productive Organizations/Institutions
				23.3.2.1 Bibliometric Analysis of the Most Productive Organizations
				23.3.2.2 Bibliographic Coupling Analysis Based on Organizations
			23.3.3 The Most Productive Journals in Research on Microplastic Pollution
				23.3.3.1 Bibliometric Analysis of Top 20 Journals Based on Published Articles on Microplastic Pollution
				23.3.3.2 Bibliometric Analysis of Topmost Cited Microplastic-Related Research Documents
			23.3.4 Bibliometric Analysis of Keywords, Thematic Evolution, and Factorial Analysis of Conceptual Structure
		23.4 Discussion
		23.5 Conclusion
		References
Index