Micro and Nanoplastics in Soil: Threats to Plant-Based Food

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Soil Pollution by Micro and Nanoplastics
	Chapter 1: Soil Pollution by Micro- and Nanoplastics: An Overview
		1.1 Historical Background
		1.2 Scope and Importance
		1.3 Outlines of Volume: Sections, Chapters, and Parts
		1.4 Contributors
		References
	Chapter 2: Soil Pollution by Micro- and Nanoplastics: Sources, Fate, and Impact
		2.1 Introduction
			2.1.1 Soil Pollution by Microplastics and Nanoplastics: A Global Scenario
			2.1.2 Transport of Micro- and Nanoplastics
			2.1.3 Sources of Soil Contamination
				2.1.3.1 Landfills
				2.1.3.2 Floods, Rise Up of Salt Water in Coastal Soil, and Aeolian Transport
				2.1.3.3 Soil Fertilized with Sewage Sludge or Irrigated with Wastewater
				2.1.3.4 Soil Under Plastic Mulching
			2.1.4 Fate of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Soil
			2.1.5 Impacts of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on the Properties of Soil
				2.1.5.1 Physical-Chemical Properties of Soil
				2.1.5.2 Active Extracellular Molecules of Soil
				2.1.5.3 Soil Microbial Community
				2.1.5.4 Soil Fauna
				2.1.5.5 Pedogenesis of Soil
				2.1.5.6 Plants
			2.1.6 Agricultural Soils
				2.1.6.1 Reduction of the Input of Microplastic and Nanoplastic in Agricultural Soils
			2.1.7 Urban Soil
			2.1.8 Other Soils
				2.1.8.1 Domestic Soil
				2.1.8.2 Industrial Soil
		2.2 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Abundance and Distribution of MPs and NPs in Soil: A Global Scenario
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Factors Controlling the Distribution of MPs and NPs in Soil
			3.2.1 Properties of Soil
			3.2.2 Morphology of MP and NP
			3.2.3 Soil Biota
			3.2.4 Cultivation
			3.2.5 Weather Pattern
		3.3 Summary of Regional MP and NP Abundance in Soil
			3.3.1 Africa
			3.3.2 America
			3.3.3 Asia
			3.3.4 Antarctica
			3.3.5 Australia
			3.3.6 Europe
		References
	Chapter 4: Methodology of Assessing Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Environment: Recent Advances in the Practical Approaches
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Analysis of Microplastics
			4.2.1 Mass-Based Analysis
		4.3 Particle-Based Methods for Nondestructive Analysis of Microplastics
			4.3.1 Vibrational Spectroscopy
		4.4 Analysis of NPLs
			4.4.1 Mass-Based Methods
			4.4.2 Nondestructive Spectroscopic Methods
		4.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 5: Persistence of Micro- and Nanoplastics in Soil
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Scenario of Plastic and Its Waste in the World and in India
		5.3 Different Categories and Uses of Plastic
		5.4 Sources and Formation of MNPs
		5.5 General Soil Properties
			5.5.1 Physical Properties
			5.5.2 Chemical Properties
		5.6 Impact on Soil Properties
			5.6.1 Soil Chemical-Physical Properties
			5.6.2 Soil Microbial and Enzyme Activities
			5.6.3 Soil Microbial Community
		5.7 Soil Fauna
		5.8 Soil Quality
			5.8.1 Soil Physical Environment
			5.8.2 Soil Chemical Fertility
		5.9 Soil Pedogenesis
		5.10 Plants
		5.11 Biological Indicators in Soil
		5.12 Environmental Risk of MNPs in Soil
		5.13 Environmental Management of MNPs
		References
	Chapter 6: Micro- and Nanoplastics as Carriers for Other Soil Pollutants
		6.1 Introduction
			6.1.1 Micro- and Nanoplastic Transportation to Soil
				6.1.1.1 Factors Involving the Transportation of M&NPs
				6.1.1.2 Micro- and Nanoplastic Movement Model in Soil
				6.1.1.3 Microplastic Transportation Through Porous Media
				6.1.1.4 Microplastic Migration in Soil Media
		6.2 M&NPs as Carriers for Other Soil Pollutants
			6.2.1 Adsorption and Migration
		6.3 Adsorption of Various Toxic Chemicals into M&NPs
			6.3.1 Microplastic Properties
				6.3.1.1 Transition Temperature
				6.3.1.2 Size of Microplastics
				6.3.1.3 Environmental Conditions
		6.4 Co-transport of Microplastics with Colloids
			6.4.1 Transfer of Microplastics Attached to Contaminants
			6.4.2 Soil Fauna’s Role in Pollutant Transport by Microplastics
			6.4.3 Organic Pollutants
			6.4.4 Inorganic Contaminants
			6.4.5 Antibiotics
			6.4.6 Heavy Metals
		6.5 Competition Microplastics and Soils in Sorption of Toxic Chemicals
			6.5.1 Biodegradable Plastics
			6.5.2 M&NPs and Natural Colloid
			6.5.3 Engineered Nanomaterials
		6.6 Conclusions
		6.7 Perspective
		References
	Chapter 7: Microplastics as a Carrier of Antibiotic Resistance Genes: A Revision of Literature
		7.1 Introduction
			7.1.1 Sources, Distributions, and Behavior Characteristics of MPs Harboring ARG in the Environment
		7.2 Aquatic Environment
		7.3 Terrestrial Environment
		7.4 Atmosphere
			7.4.1 The Role of MPs as Reservoirs for Microbes, ARGs, and Their Accumulation and Dissemination
		7.5 ARGs in the Plastisphere and Potential Risks to Human Health
		7.6 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Trophic Transfer of Micro and Nanoplastics
	Chapter 8: Phytoaccumulation of Micro- and Nanoplastics: Root Uptake
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Types of Micro- and Nanoplastics in Plant
		8.3 Phytotoxicity of Micro- and Nanoplastics
		8.4 Mechanisms of Phytoaccumulation of Micro- and Nanoplastics by Plant-Root System
		8.5 Factors Responsible for Micro- and Nanoplastics Phytoaccumulation
		8.6 Concentrations of MPs
		8.7 Plant Growth and Net Primary Production
		8.8 Microplastics Interaction with Soil Microbes
		8.9 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Toxicity of Micro and Nanoplastics
	Chapter 9: Toxicity Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics in Terrestrial Environment
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Global Production of Plastics and Generation of Waste
		9.3 Current World Production Rate of Plastics
		9.4 Future Projection of Production of Plastic
		9.5 Types of Plastics
			9.5.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
			9.5.2 High-density Polyethylene
			9.5.3 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
			9.5.4 Low-density Polyethylene
			9.5.5 Polypropylene
			9.5.6 Polystyrene
			9.5.7 Polycarbonate
		9.6 Micro and Nanoplastics (MNPs) in the Environment
		9.7 Sources and Information of Micro and Nanoplastics (MNPs)
		9.8 Fate of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Environment
		9.9 Classification of MNPs and Their Potential Toxic Effects on Human Health
		9.10 Occurrence and Effects of MNPs
			9.10.1 Terrestrial Habitats
			9.10.2 Food Chain
		9.11 Leaching of Toxic Chemicals from Plastics
		9.12 Environmental Behaviour of MNPs and Its Effects on the Ecosystem
			9.12.1 Nanoplastics
			9.12.2 Microplastic Effects in Ecosystems
		9.13 Uptake and Bioaccumulation of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Human Body
		9.14 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Ecological Impacts and Toxicity of Micro- and Nanoplastics in Agroecosystem
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Sources of Micro and Nanoplastics in Soil
			10.2.1 Micro- and Nanoplastics in Soil
		10.3 Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics to Soil Microflora and Fauna
		10.4 Soil Properties and Micro- and Nanoplastics Toxicity
		10.5 Micro- and Nanoplastics Toxicity and Plant Performance
		10.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 11: Micro- and Nanoplastics on Plant Functionalities
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Types of Plastics
			11.2.1 Sources of MPs and NPs
			11.2.2 Accumulation of MPs and NPs in Plants
		11.3 Effects of MPs and NPs on Plant Functionalities
		11.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Cellular and Animal Toxicities of Micro- and Nanoplastics
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Polymer Types of MPs/NPs
			12.2.1 Primary Type
			12.2.2 Secondary Type
		12.3 Detection of MPs/NPs
			12.3.1 Separation
			12.3.2 Visualization
			12.3.3 Characterization
		12.4 Exposure of MPs/NPs to the Biological System
		12.5 Factors That Influence Their Cytotoxicity
			12.5.1 Size of MPs/NPs and Dosage
			12.5.2 Charge
			12.5.3 Additives
			12.5.4 Adsorbed Pollutants
		12.6 Toxicity Caused to Human Cells (In Vitro)/Potential Effects on Organ System
			12.6.1 Immune Cells
			12.6.2 Gastrointestinal Cells
			12.6.3 Airway Cells
			12.6.4 Mammalian Cells
			12.6.5 Animals
		12.7 Cellular and Molecular Interactions Caused by MPs and NPs
		12.8 Regulatory Policies/International, National, and Regional Instruments
		12.9 Conclusion/Future Directions
		References
Part IV: Bioremediation of Micro and Nano Plastics-Polluted Soil
	Chapter 13: Restoration of Micro-/Nano plastics: Contaminated Soil by Phytoremediation
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Methodology
		13.3 Types of Phytoremediation
		13.4 Harvesting/Disposal of Plant Material
		13.5 Soil Remediation Methods
		13.6 Applicability
		13.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Bacterial Remediation of Micro-Nanoplastics (MNPs): Contaminated Soil
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Types of Most Commonly Used Plastics
			14.2.1 Classification Based on the Origin of the Plastics
		14.3 Classification Based on the Structure of the Atoms
		14.4 Classification on the Basis of Thermal Properties
		14.5 Classification on the Basis of Degradability
			14.5.1 Non-biodegradable Plastics
			14.5.2 Biodegradable Plastics
		14.6 Classification Based on the Fragment Size
		14.7 Degradation of Plastics
			14.7.1 Abiotic Methods
			14.7.2 Biotic Methods
		14.8 Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation
		14.9 Plastics Biodegradation Bacteria
			14.9.1 Plastic-Degrading Bacteria
			14.9.2 Plastic-Degrading Actinomycetes
		14.10 Plastic-Degrading Bacterial Enzymes
		14.11 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 15: Mycoremediation of Micro-/Nanoplastics-Contaminated Soils
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Plastics
			15.2.1 Types of Plastic Degradation
		15.3 Bioremediation
		15.4 Importance of Mycoremediation
		15.5 Important Fungal Strains Involved in Bioremediation
			15.5.1 Aspergillus flavus
			15.5.2 Fusarium solani
			15.5.3 Aspergillus niger
			15.5.4 Candida antarctica
			15.5.5 Phanerochaete chrysosporium
			15.5.6 Aspergillus japonicus
			15.5.7 Cladosporium cladosporioides
			15.5.8 Alternaria solani
			15.5.9 Trichoderma viride
			15.5.10 Chaetomium globosum
		15.6 Factors Influencing Mycoremediation
		15.7 Diverse Enzymes Involved in Mycoremediation
			15.7.1 Cutinases
			15.7.2 Lipases and Esterases
			15.7.3 Peroxidases and Laccases
			15.7.4 Dehydrogenase
			15.7.5 Depolymerase
			15.7.6 Protease
			15.7.7 Urease and Papain
			15.7.8 Plastic Degradation by Enzyme Consortium
		15.8 Methods of Analysis of Plastic Degradation
			15.8.1 Gravimetric Measurement
			15.8.2 Clearance Zone Formation
			15.8.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
			15.8.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
			15.8.5 Carbon Labeled Polymers
			15.8.6 Other Methods
		15.9 Some Studies Undertaken for Microbial Degradation of Plastics
		15.10 Conclusion and Future Considerations
		References
	Chapter 16: Emerging Techniques for the Mitigation of Micro and Nanoplastics in Soil
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Impacts of MNPs
			16.2.1 Impacts of MNPs on Plants
			16.2.2 Impacts of MNPs on Microorganisms and Mammals
		16.3 Micro-Nano Plastics’ Biological and Toxicological Effects
		16.4 Analytical Methods
			16.4.1 Available Analytical Methods
		16.5 Microbial Degradation of Micro-Nano Plastics
			16.5.1 Mechanism of Micro-Nano Plastics Biodegradation
		16.6 Recent Advancements in the Breakdown of Micro-Nano Plastics
			16.6.1 Membrane and Enzyme Technology
			16.6.2 Enzyme-Assisted Degradation
			16.6.3 Advance Molecular Technologies
		16.7 Bio-Membrane Technology
		16.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: Micro and Nanoplastics in Agricultural Soils: Challenges and Future Directions
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Distribution of Plastics in Agriculture
		17.3 Incorporation Into the Food Chain
		17.4 Alteration of Ecosystems and Possible Damage to Health
		17.5 Methods of Prevention and Remediation of Contaminated Soils
		17.6 Actions of Governments in the Face of the Problematic
		References
Index