Metal failures : mechanisms, analysis, prevention

 Content: Preface xv    1. Failure Analysis 1   I. Introduction 1  II. Examples of Case Studies Involving Structural Failures 6  III. Summary 25  References 25  Problems 26   2. Elements of Elastic Deformation 27   I. Introduction 27  II. Stress 27  III. Strain 32  IV. Elastic Constitutive Relationships 35  V. State of Stress Ahead of a Notch 44  VI. Summary 46  References 46  Appendix 2-1: Mohr Circle Equations for a Plane Problem 46  Appendix 2-2: Three-Dimensional Stress Analysis 49  Appendix 2-3: Stress Formulas Under Simple Loading Conditions 54  Problems 57   3. Elements of Plastic Deformation 59   I. Introduction 59  II. Theoretical Shear Strength 59  III. Dislocations 61  IV. Yield Criteria for Multiaxial Stress 68  V. State of Stress in the Plastic Zone Ahead of a Notch in Plane-Strain Deformation 70  VI. Summary 74  For Further Reading 75  Appendix 3-1: The von Mises Yield Criterion 75  Problems 76   4. Elements of Fracture Mechanics 80   I. Introduction 80  II. Griffith's Analysis of the Critical Stress for Brittle Fracture 80  III. Alternative Derivation of the Griffith Equation 83  IV. Orowan-Irwin Modification of the Griffith Equation 84  V. Stress Intensity Factors 85  VI. The Three Loading Modes 88  VII. Determination of the Plastic Zone Size 88  VIII. Effect of Thickness on Fracture Toughness 89  IX. The R-Curve 91  X. Short Crack Limitation 92  XI. Case Studies 92  XII. The Plane-Strain Crack Arrest Fracture Toughness, KIa, of Ferritic Steels 95  XIII. Elastic-plastic Fracture Mechanics 96  XIV. Failure Assessment Diagrams 98  XV. Summary 101  References 101  Problems 102   5. Alloys and Coatings 105   I. Introduction 105  II. Alloying Elements 106  III. Periodic Table 107  IV. Phase Diagrams 108  V. Coatings 126  VI. Summary 130  References 130  Problems 130   6. Examination and Reporting Procedures 132   I. Introduction 132  II. Tools for Examinations in the Field 132  III. Preparation of Fracture Surfaces for Examination 133  IV. Visual Examination 133  V. Case Study: Failure of a Steering Column Component 134  VI. Optical Examination 135  VII. Case Study: Failure of a Helicopter Tail Rotor 136  VIII. The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 136  IX. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 138  X. Replicas 142  XI. Spectrographic and Other Types of Chemical Analysis 143  XII. Case Study: Failure of a Zinc Die Casting 144  XIII. Specialized Analytical Techniques 145  XIV. Stress Measurement by X-Rays 146  XV. Case Study: Residual Stress in a Train Wheel 149  XVI. The Technical Report 150  XVII. Record Keeping and Testimony 151  XVIII. Summary 154  References 155  Problem 155   7. Brittle and Ductile Fractures 156   I. Introduction 156  II. Brittle Fracture 156  III. Some Examples of Brittle Fracture in Steel 159  IV. Ductile-Brittle Behavior of Steel 161  V. Case Study: The Nuclear Pressure Vessel Design Code 168  VI. Case Study: Examination of Samples from the Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic 172  VII. Ductile Fracture 177  VIII. Ductile Tensile Failure, Necking 177  IX. Fractographic Features Associated with Ductile Rupture 183  X. Failure in Torsion 185  XI. Case Study: Failure of a Helicopter Bolt 185  XII. Summary 188  References 191  Problems 191   8. Thermal and Residual Stresses 196   I. Introduction 196  II. Thermal Stresses, Thermal Strain, and Thermal Shock 196  III. Residual Stresses Caused by Nonuniform Plastic Deformation 200  IV. Residual Stresses Due to Quenching 204  V. Residual Stress Toughening 207  VI. Residual Stresses Resulting from Carburizing, Nitriding, and Induction Hardening 207  VII. Residual Stresses Developed in Welding 209  VIII. Measurement of Residual Stresses 211  IX. Summary 211  References 211  Appendix 8-1: Case Study of a Fracture Due to Thermal Stress 212  Problems 213   9. Creep 216   I. Introduction 216  II. Background 216  III. Characteristics of Creep 217  IV. Creep Parameters 220  V. Creep Fracture Mechanisms 222  VI. Fracture Mechanism Maps 224  VII. Case Studies 225  VIII. Residual Life Assessment 230  IX. Stress Relaxation 232  X. Elastic Follow-up 233  XI. Summary 234  References 234  Problems 234   10. Fatigue 237   I. Introduction 237  II. Background 237  III. Design Considerations 240  IV. Mechanisms of Fatigue 246  V. Factors Affecting Fatigue Crack Initiation 254  VI. Factors Affecting Fatigue Crack Growth 257  VII. Analysis of the Rate of Fatigue Crack Propagation 261  VIII. Fatigue Failure Analysis 273  IX. Case Studies 276  X. Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue 285  XI. Cavitation 285  XII. Composite Materials 286  XIII. Summary 287  References 287  For Further Reading 290  Problems 290   11. Statistical Distributions 293   I. Introduction 293  II. Distribution Functions 293  III. The Normal Distribution 294  IV. Statistics of Fatigue; Statistical Distributions 296  V. The Weibull Distribution 298  VI. The Gumbel Distribution 302  VII. The Staircase Method 307  VIII. Summary 310  References 310  Appendix 11-1: Method of Linear Least Squares (C. F. Gauss, 1794) 311  Problems 314   12. Defects 316   I. Introduction 316  II. Weld Defects 316  III. Case Study: Welding Defect 321  IV. Casting Defects 328  V. Case Study: Corner Cracking during Continuous Casting 329  VI. Forming Defects 329  VII. Case Studies: Forging Defects 330  VIII. Case Study: Counterfeit Part 332  IX. The Use of the Wrong Alloys; Errors in Heat Treatment, etc.333  X. Summary 334  References 334  Problems 334   13. Environmental Effects 336   I. Introduction 336  II. Definitions 336  III. Fundamentals of Corrosion Processes 337  IV. Environmentally Assisted Cracking Processes 342  V. Case Studies 348  VI. Cracking in Oil and Gas Pipelines 350  VII. Crack Arrestors and Pipeline Reinforcement 352  VIII. Plating Problems 353  IX. Case Studies 353  X. Pitting Corrosion of Household Copper Tubing 356  XI. Problems with Hydrogen at Elevated Temperatures 356  XII. Hot Corrosion (Sulfidation) 358  XIII. Summary 358  References 358  Problems 359   14. Flaw Detection 360   I. Introduction 360  II. Inspectability 360  III. Visual Examination (VE) 364  IV. Penetrant Testing (PT) 364  V. Case Study: Sioux City DC-10 Aircraft 367  VI. Case Study: MD-88 Engine Failure 374  VII. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) 375  VIII. Case Study: Failure of an Aircraft Crankshaft 378  IX. Eddy Current Testing (ET) 382  X. Case Study: Aloha Airlines 384  XI. Ultrasonic Testing (UT) 384  XII. Case Study: B747 389  XIII. Radiographic Testing (RT) 389  XIV. Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) 391  XV. Cost of Inspections 393  XVI. Summary 393  References 394  Problems 394   15. Wear 396   I. Wear 396  II. The Coefficient of Friction 397  III. The Archard Equation 398  IV. An Example of Adhesive Wear 399  V. Fretting Fatigue 399  VI. Case Study: Friction and Wear; Bushing Failure 403  VII. Roller Bearings 404  VIII. Case Study: Failure of a Railroad Car Axle 410  IX. Gear Failures 410  X. Summary 414  References 414  Problems 415  Concluding Remarks 417  Solutions to Problems 419  Name Index 469  Subject Index 473