Medical Biochemistry

Front Cover
Medical Biochemistry
Copyright
Dedication
Dedication
Contents
Preface
	Cover
Introduction
Chapter 1: Chemical composition of living beings
	Biogenic elements
	Biological compounds
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 2: Water
	The water molecule is polar
	Hydrogen bond
	Water as solvent
	Water as an electrolyte
	Equilibrium constant
	Equilibrium of water ionization
	Acids and bases
	The strength of acids and bases
	pH
	Buffers
	Titration curve of acids and bases
	Appendix
		Expression of concentrations
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 3: Proteins
	Proteins are macromolecules formed by amino acids
	Amino acids
		Optical isomerism
		Classification of amino acids
			Neutral amino acids with a nonpolar aliphatic chain
			Neutral aliphatic amino acids with a nonionizable polar chain
			Aromatic neutral amino acids
			Amino acids containing sulfur
			Acidic (dicarboxylic) amino acids
			Basic amino acids
			Proline
		Other amino acids
		General properties of amino acids
		Acid-base properties of amino acids
		Amino acids titration curve
		Chemical properties of amino acids
	Peptides
		Peptide bond
		Nomenclature
		Acid-base properties
		Biologically important peptides
	Proteins
		Acid-base properties
		Electrophoresis
		Molecular mass
		Solubility
		Dialysis-ultrafiltration
		Molecular shape
		Molecular structure
		Primary structure
		Secondary structure
		Tertiary structure
		Quaternary structure
		Multimolecular complexes
		Considerations about protein structure
		Protein denaturation
		Protein classification
		Simple proteins
		Conjugated proteins
		Proteins in nutrition
		Protein structure and function
	Collagen
	Keratins
	Hemoglobin
	Heme
	Globin
		Transport of carbon dioxide
	Hemoglobin derivatives
		Carboxyhemoglobin
		Methemoglobin
		Hemoglobin A1c
	Abnormal hemoglobins
	Blood plasma proteins
	Main plasma proteins
	Muscle proteins
	Muscle contraction
	Proteomics
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 4: Carbohydrates
	Monosaccharides
		Isomerism
		Monosaccharides of interest in human biochemistry
		Glucose
		Galactose
		Mannose
		Fructose
		Pentoses
		Haworth's formulas
		Monosaccharide derivatives
			Glycosides
			Products obtained from the reduction of hexoses
			Deoxysugars
			Products of oxidation of aldoses
			Phosphoric esters
			Amino sugars
	Disaccharides
		Maltose
		Lactose
		Saccharose
	Polysaccharides
		Homopolysaccharides
		Starch
		Glycogen
		Dextrins
		Dextrans
		Inulin
		Cellulose
		Chitin
		Heteropolysaccharides
			Glycosaminoglycans
		Dietary fiber
		Proteoglycans
			Peptidoglycans
			Glycoproteins
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 5: Lipids
	Classification
	Fatty acids
		Fatty acids properties
			Physical properties
			Chemical properties
				Properties that depend on the carboxyl group
				Properties dependent on the carbon chain
	Essential fatty acids
	Simple lipids
		Acylglycerols
			Acylglycerols properties
				Physical properties
				Chemical properties
			Nutritional importance of fats
		Waxes
	Complex lipids
		Phospholipids
			Glycerophospholipids
			Sphingophospholipids
		Glycolipids
			Cerebrosides
			Gangliosides
		Lipoproteins
	Substances associated with lipids
		Terpenes
		Sterols
		Eicosanoids
		Lipidomics
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 6: Nucleic acids
	Nucleotides
	Nucleic acids
		Deoxyribonucleic acid
			DNA molecular structure
			DNA denaturation
			Renaturation
			Chromatin
			Circular DNA
			Genome
		Ribonucleic acid
			Messenger ribonucleic acid
			Transfer ribonucleic acid
			Ribosomal ribonucleic acid
			Small nuclear nucleoproteins
	Virus
	Free nucleotides
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 7: Elements of thermodynamics and biochemical kinetics
	Thermodynamics
		Energy
		Energy changes in chemical reactions
		Laws of thermodynamics
		Free energy
		The direction of a chemical reaction
		Chemical equilibrium
	The cell as an open system
		High-energy compounds
		Energetically coupled reactions
	Chemical kinetics
		Reaction order
		Activation energy
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 8: Enzymes
	Enzymes are biological catalysts
	Nomenclature and classification of enzymes
	Chemical nature of enzymes
	Metalloenzymes
	Enzymatic catalysis
	Active site
	Zymogens
	Genetic alterations that affect enzyme function
	Enzyme distribution within the cell
	Multienzyme systems
	Determination of enzyme activity
	Factors that modify enzyme activity
	Enzyme inhibitors
		Irreversible inhibitors
		Reversible inhibitors
	Regulation of enzyme activity
	Constitutive and inducible enzymes
	Enzymatic processes in cascade
	Isozymes
	Determination of enzymes in the clinical laboratory
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 9: Biological oxidations: Bioenergetics
	The energy-rich intermediate ATP
	Oxidation-reduction
		Oxidation involves Electron loss
		Reduction potential
		Reduction potential determination
	Biological oxidations
		Mitochondria
	Respiratory chain
		Transfer of reduction equivalents
		Respiratory chain components
		Respiratory chain complexes
		Electron transport inhibitors
	Oxidative phosphorylation
		Mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation
		Coupling of Electron transport andproton translocation
		ATP synthesis in the complex F0F1
		ATP-ADP transport
		ATP yield of oxidative phosphorylation
		Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation
		Respiratory control
		Genetic deficiencies of the respiratory chain
		Brown fat
		Hydrogen shuttle systems
	Phosphorylation at substrate level
	Other electron transport systems
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 10: Antioxidants
	Reactive species
		Reactive oxygen species
		Reactive nitrogen species
		Harmful effects of reactive species
		Cell signaling role of reactive species
		Defense mechanisms against reactive oxygen species
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 11: Membranes
	Structure
		Membrane lipids
		Membrane proteins
		Carbohydrates
		Subcellular organelles
	Transport across membranes
		Diffusion
	Passive transport or facilitated diffusion
		Channels
		Water channaels-Aquaporins
		Channels between cells
			Compounds that function as channels
		Facilitated diffusion transporters
	Active transport
		P-type ATPases
		Na+,K+-ATPase
		Ca2+-ATPase
		H+,K+-ATPase
		F-type ATPases
		V-type ATPase
		ABC transporters
		Secondary active transport
			Channelopathies
		Nerve impulse
		Movement of substances by membrane vesicles
			Endocytosis
			Exocytosis
		Vesicular transport
		Exosomes or extracellular vesicles
		Cell adhesion
		Cilia
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 12: Digestion-Absorption
	Saliva
		Composition
		Inorganic components
		Regulation of saliva secretion
		Digestive action of saliva
		Other functions of saliva
	Gastric secretion
		Hydrochloric acid
		Digestive action of gastric secretion
		Analysis of gastric secretion
	Pancreatic juice
		Inorganic components
		Digestive action of pancreatic juice
	Intestinal mucosa
		Brush border enzymes
	Bile
		Composition
	Summary of the digestive process
		Carbohydrates
		Lipids
		Proteins
		Nucleic acids
	Absorption
		Carbohydrates
		Lipids
		Proteins
		Water and electrolytes
	Gastrointestinal microbiome
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 13: Metabolism
	Metabolic pathways
	Metabolic studies
		Model systems used in metabolic studies
		Approaches used to study metabolism
		Metabolomics
	Regulation of metabolism
		Compartmentalization of enzymes involved in metabolism
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 14: Carbohydrate metabolism
	Glucose uptake into cells
	Glucose phosphorylation
	Metabolic pathways for glucose
		Glycogenesis
			Energy requirements for glycogen synthesis
		Glycogenolysis
			Genetic diseases related to glycogen metabolism
		Glycolysis
			First phase of glycolysis
			Second phase of glycolysis
			Energy balance of glycolysis
			Functional role of glycolysis
		Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
		Citric acid, tricarboxylic acid, or Krebs cycle
			Citric acid cycle reactions
			Genetic defects of the citric acid cycle
			General considerations about the citric acid cycle
			Citric acid cycle functional role
			Citric acid cycle energy balance
			Glucose oxidation energy balance
		Hexose monophosphate or pentose phosphate pathway
			Pentose pathway functional significance
		Gluconeogenesis
			General considerations about gluconeogenesis
			Gluconeogenesis energy cost
			Cori's cycle
	Metabolism of other hexoses
		Fructose metabolism
		Galactose metabolism
		Blood glucose
		Nucleotide sugars
	Biosynthesis of oligosaccharides in glycoproteins
		Biosynthesis of oligosaccharides linked to serine or threonine (O)
		Biosynthesis of asparagine-linked oligosaccharides (N-oligosaccharides)
		Degradation of proteoglycans and glycoproteins
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 15: Lipid metabolism
	Plasma lipoprotein metabolism
		Chylomicrons
		Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)
		Low-density lipoproteins
		High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
			Lipoprotein (a)
		Receptors
		Lipoproteins and atherosclerosis
	Fat metabolism
		Glycerol metabolism
		Fatty acid catabolism
		β-Oxidation
		Other oxidation pathways
		Unsaturated fatty acids oxidation
		Fatty acid oxidation energy balance
		Ketogenesis
		Ketosis
		Glucose formation from fats
	Fatty acid biosynthesis
		De novo cytoplasmic synthesis of fatty acids
		Fatty acid synthesis steps
			Malonyl-CoA formation
		Fatty acid synthase
		Fatty acid elongation
		Unsaturated fatty acids biosynthesis
			Monoethylenic
		Polyethylenic
	Eicosanoid biosynthesis
	Triacylglycerol biosynthesis
		Obesity
	Phospholipid biosynthesis
		Complex lipid degradation
	Congenital disorders of complex lipid catabolism
	Cholesterol metabolism
	Cholesterol biosynthesis
	Alterations of plasma lipids
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 16: Amino acid metabolism
	Essential AA
		Protein requirements
		Fate of AA in the body
			Amino acid transport
	Amino acid catabolism
		Transamination
		Glutamate deamination
	Metabolic pathways of ammonia
		Glutamine formation
		Urea formation
		Considerations about the urea cycle
		Inborn errors of urea cycle
		Ammonia toxicity
		Role of various organs in amino acid metabolism
		Fate of the carbon skeleton of AA
		Intermediate metabolites formed by the catabolism of AA
		Metabolic fate of branched chain AA
		Amino acid biosynthesis
	Other general mechanisms of amino acid metabolism
		Decarboxylation
			Biosynthesis of biological amines
			Transfer of monocarbon groups
	Metabolic pathways of AA
		Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine
			Catecholamine biosynthesis
			Melanin synthesis
			Thyroid hormone synthesis
			Inborn errors of tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism
		Tryptophan metabolism
			Serotonin biosynthesis
			Melatonin synthesis
			Nicotinic acid synthesis
			Bacterial putrefaction
			Nitric oxide synthesis
			Use of AA in detoxification or biotransformation reactions
			Creatine synthesis
		Glutathione
			Inborn errors of amino acid metabolism
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 17: Heme metabolism
	Heme biosynthesis
		Porphyrias
	Catabolism of heme
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 18: Purine and pyrimidine metabolism
	Purine biosynthesis
	Purine salvage pathway
	Purine catabolism
	Uric acid
	Gout
	Pyrimidine biosynthesis
	Pyrimidine catabolism
	Di- and triphosphate nucleoside biosynthesis
	Deoxyribonucleotide biosynthesis
	Pharmacological approaches to purine and pyrimidine metabolism
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 19: Integration and regulation of metabolism
	Interconversion of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids
	Metabolic regulation
		Examples of metabolic regulation
		Regulation of glycogen synthesis and degradation
		Glycogenolysis
		Glycogenesis
		Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
		Pasteur effect
		Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
		Regulation of the citric acid cycle
		Regulation of fatty acid metabolism
		Regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis
		Regulation of the metabolism of nitrogenous compounds
		Metabolic interactions
		Regulation of cellular oxidations
		Regulatory role of adenylates
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 20: Metabolism in some tissues
	Liver metabolism
		Carbohydrates
		Lipids
		Amino acids
		Biotransformation
		Ethanol metabolism
	Skeletal muscle metabolism
	Heart metabolism
	Adipose tissue metabolism
	Nervous tissue metabolism
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 21: The genetic information (I)
	DNA replication
		Cell cycle
		Enzymes and factors involved in DNA replication
		Mechanism of DNA replication
		DNA Repair
		Telomerase
	Transcription
		Transcription in prokaryotes
		Transcription in eukaryotes
		Synthesis of precursor messenger RNA
		Synthesis of Transfer RNA
		Synthesis of ribosomal RNA
		Reverse transcriptase
	Molecular biology
		Methods used in molecular biology
	Summary
		Molecular biology
	Further reading
Chapter 22: The genetic information (II)
	Protein biosynthesis
		Genetic code
			Nuclear DNA
		Human genome project
			Mitochondrial DNA
			Messenger RNA
		Transcriptome
			Ribosomal RNA
			Transfer RNA
		Ribonucleic enzymes or ribozymes
	Mechanism of protein synthesis
		Antibiotic effects on DNA and protein synthesis
			Antibiotics that block replication
			Antibiotics that block transcription
			Antibiotics that block translation
	Genetic mutations
		Transposons
			Variome
			Transgenesis
			DNA microarrays
			Proteome
			Personalized medicine
			Mechanism of virus action
	Oncogenes
		Tumor suppressor genes
	Epigenetics
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 23: Regulation of gene expression
	Gene regulation in eukaryotes
		Gene regulatory networks
	Gene regulation by noncoding RNAs
	Small noncoding RNAs
	Long noncoding RNAs
	Riboswitches
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 24: Posttranslational protein modifications
	Protein folding
	Pathologies caused by misfolded proteins
	Posttranslational protein modifications
		Role of protein posttranslational modifications in disease
		Relevance of protein posttranslational modifications in cell protein trafficking
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 25: Biochemical basis of endocrinology (I) receptors and signal transduction
	Receptors
		Intracellular receptors
		Plasma membrane receptors
	Signal transduction systems
		3,5-cyclic-AMP system
		3,5-cyclic-GMP
		Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate system (lipids in signaling systems)
		Ras and MAP kinases system
		JAK-STAT system
		mTOR
		Notch pathway
		Wnt signaling
		Hedgehog pathway
		Ca2+ signal
		Cross talk between signaling systems
		Scaffold proteins
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 26: Biochemical bases of endocrinology (II) hormones and other chemical intermediates
	Hormones
		Classification and structure
		Actions promoted by hormones
		General properties of hormones
		Hormone determination methods
	Endocrine glands and their hormones
		Hypothalamic hormones
		Pituitary hormones
			Anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis hormone
		Adrenocorticotropin hormone
		Thyroid-stimulating hormone
		Gonadotropins
		Prolactin or lactogenic hormone
		Growth hormone or somatotropin
		Melanocyte stimulatory hormone
			Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) hormones
		Oxytocin
		Arginine vasopressin
	Placental hormones
		Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
		Placental lactogen
	Thyroid hormones
	Adrenal gland hormones
		Adrenal cortex hormones
		Alterations of adrenocortical hormones
		Adrenal medulla hormones
	Pancreatic hormones
		Insulin
		Glucagon
		Somatostatin
		Glucose homeostasis
		Diabetes mellitus
	Gonadal hormones
		Testis androgens
		Ovarian hormones
		Estrogen actions
		Progesterone actions
		Ovarian peptide hormones
	Parathyroid gland hormones
		Parathyroid hormone alterations
		Calcitonin
	Kidney hormones
		Renin
		Erythropoietin
		Bradykinin
		Endothelin
		Urodilatin
		Calcitriol
	Heart hormones
		Natriuretic peptides
	Gastrointestinal hormones
		Gastrin
		Secretin
		Cholecystokinin
		Vasoactive intestinal peptide
		Enteroglucagon
		Ghrelin
		Amylin
		Galanin
	Pineal gland hormone
	Eicosanoids
	Growth factors
	Nervous system chemical intermediaries (Neurotransmitters)
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 27: Vitamins
	Fat-soluble vitamins
		Vitamin A
		Vitamin D
		Vitamin E
		Vitamin K
	Water-soluble vitamins
		Vitamin B complex
		Thiamine
		Riboflavin
		Niacin
		Pantothenic acid
		Pyridoxine
		Biotin
		Folic acid
		Cobalamin
		Ascorbic acid
		Other nutritional factors
		Choline
		Taurine
		Carnitine
		Inositol
		Lipoic acid
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 28: Water and acid-base balance
	Water distribution in the body
	Water balance
	Ionic composition of body fluids
	Alterations of the water balance
	H+ concentration in body fluids
	Regulation of H+ concentration
	Carbon dioxide transport
	Regulatory systems
	Respiratory regulation
	Renal regulation
	Regulation of intracellular pH
	Acid-base balance disorders
	H+ excretion regulation
	Laboratory studies in acid-base disorders
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 29: Essential minerals
	Macrominerals
		Sodium (Na)
		Potassium (K)
		Chloride (Cl-)
		Calcium (Ca)
		Phosphorus (P)
		Magnesium (Mg)
		Iron (Fe)
	Trace elements
		Copper (Cu)
		Iodine (I)
		Manganese (Mn)
		Molybdenum (Mo)
		Selenium (Se)
		Zinc (Zn)
		Non-essential elements
		Boron (B)
		Chromium (Cr)
		Cobalt (Co)
		Fluorine (F)
		Strontium (Sr)
		Vanadium (V)
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 30: Molecular basis of immunity
	Immune system
	Innate system
	Adaptive system
		Humoral immunity
			Kinetics of the immune response
			Structure of immunoglobulins
			Heavy chain isotypes
			Membrane immunoglobulins
		Clonal selection
			Characteristics of the antigen
	Genetic diversity of immunoglobulins
		Antibody heterogeneity
			Arrangement of the Ig heavy-chain genes
			Arrangement of light-chain genes
			Ig genes rearrangement by VDJ recombination
			Synthesis of different Ig isotypes
			Regulatory sequences in Ig genes
			Memory cells
			Monoclonal antibodies
	Complement
		Classical pathway
		Membrane attack complex
		Alternative pathway
			Regulatory factors
			Functions of the complement system
	Cellular immunity
		T lymphocytes
			T-cell receptor
		Major histocompatibility complex
			Antigen recognition
			Antigen processing
			Activation of T lymphocytes
	Cytokines
		Interferon
		Pathologies related to the immune system
	Vaccines
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 31: Hemostasis
	Blood coagulation
		Stages of blood coagulation
		First stage: Factor Xa formation
		Second stage: Thrombin formation
		Third stage: Fibrin formation
		Regulation of coagulation
		Fibrinolysis
	Coagulation disorders
	Summary
	Further reading
Chapter 32: Cell death
	Apoptosis
		Necrosis
		Pyroptosis
		Necroptosis
		Oncosis
		Anoikis
		Other types of cell death
	Summary
	Further reading
Index
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