Mechanical Alloying: Energy Storage, Protective Coatings, and Medical Applications

Cover
Mechanical Alloying:
Energy Storage, Protective Coatings,
and Medical Applications
Copyright
Dedication
About the author
Preface
Acknowledgment
1 - Introduction
	1.1 - Advanced materials
	1.2 - Strategies used for fabrications of advanced materials
	1.3 - Mechanically assisted approach
		1.3.1 - Powder metallurgy
		1.3.2 - Ball milling
		1.3.3 - Mechanical alloying
		1.3.4 - Severe plastic deformation
	1.4 - Thermal approach
		1.4.1 - Rapid solidification
		1.4.2 - Droplet method: gas/water atomization
		1.4.3 - Thermal plasma processing
		1.4.4 - Vapor deposition
	References
2 -  Characterizations of mechanically alloyed powders
	2.1 - Introduction
	2.2 - Examples of characterization techniques
		2.2.1 - Photon probe methods
		2.2.2 - Photon probe methods
		2.2.3 - Scanning probe methods
		2.2.4 - Thermodynamic methods
3 - The history and necessity of mechanical alloying
	3.1 - History of story of mechanical alloying
	3.2 - Fabrications of ODS alloys
		3.2.1 - ODS Ni-base superalloys and Fe-base high-temperature alloys
			3.2.1.1 - INCONEL MA 754
			3.2.1.2 - INCONEL MA 6000
			3.2.1.3 - INCONEL MA 956
	3.3 - Fabrications of other advanced materials
	3.4 - Mechanical alloying, mechanical grinding, mechanical milling, and mechanical disordering
	3.5 - Types of ball mills
		3.5.1 - High-energy ball mills
			3.5.1.1 - Attritor or attrition ball mill
			3.5.1.2 - Shaker mills
			3.5.1.3 - RETSCH mixer mills MM 200 and MM 400
			3.5.1.4 - Super Misuni
			3.5.1.5 - Planetary ball mills
			3.5.1.6 - The uni-ball mill
		3.5.2 - Low-energy tumbling mill
			3.5.2.1 - Tumbler ball mill
			3.5.2.2 - Tumbler rod mill
	3.6 - Mechanism of mechanical alloying
		3.6.1 - Ball–powder–ball collision
	3.7 - Necessity of mechanical alloying
	References
4 - 
Controlling the powder-milling process
	4.1 - Factors affecting the MA/MD/MM
		4.1.1 - Types of ball mills
		4.1.2 - Shape of the milling vials
		4.1.3 - Impurities and the milling tools
		4.1.4 - Milling media
		4.1.5 - Milling speed
		4.1.6 - Milling time
		4.1.7 - Milling atmosphere
		4.1.8 - Milling environment
		4.1.9 - Ball-to-powder weight ratio
		4.1.10 - Milling temperature
	References
5 - Ball milling as a superior nanotechnological fabrication’s tool
	5.1 - Introduction
		5.1.1 - Types of nanomaterials
		5.1.2 - Methods for preparing nanomaterials
	5.2 - Nanocrystalline materials
		5.2.1 - Influence of nanocrystallinity on mechanical properties: strengthening by grain size reduction
	5.3 - Formation of nanocrystalline materials by ball milling technique
		5.3.1 - Mechanism(s)
			5.3.1.1 - First stage
			5.3.1.2 - Second stage
			5.3.1.3 - Third stage
	5.4 - Selected examples
		5.4.1 - Formation of nanocrystalline NixMo100-x (x = 60 and 85 at.%)
		5.4.2 - Formation of nanocrystalline fcc metals
	5.5 - Effect of ball milling on the structure of carbon nanotubes
	5.6 - Pressing and sintering of powders materials
		5.6.1 - Classic powder metallurgy
	5.7 - Consolidation of nanocrystalline powders
		5.7.1 - Approaches used for consolidation of the ball-milled powders
	5.8 - Spark plasma sintering for consolidation of ball-milled nanocrystalline powders
		5.8.1 - Components and system configurations of SPS system
		5.8.2 - Powder specimen filling procedure
		5.8.3 - Procedure
		5.8.4 - Mechanism
	5.9 - Fabrication of nanodiamonds and carbon nanotubes by milling
		5.9.1 - Method
			5.9.1.1 - Materials and equipment
			5.9.1.2 - Nanodiamonds syntheses
			5.9.1.3 - Results
			5.9.1.4 - Discussion
	References
6 - Mechanochimical process for fabrication of 3D nanomaterials
	6.1 - Introduction
	6.2 - Reduction of Cu2O with Ti by room temperature rod milling
	6.3 - Properties
		6.3.1 - Structural changes with the milling time
		6.3.2 - Metallography
		6.3.3 - DTA measurements
	6.4 - Mechanism of MSSR
	6.5 - Fabrication of nanocrystalline WC and nanocomposite WC-MgO refractory materials by MSSR method
		6.5.1 - Properties of ball-milled powders
			6.5.1.1 - Structural changes with the milling time
			6.5.1.2 - Temperature change with the milling time
			6.5.1.3 - Hardness, toughness, and elastic moduli of consolidated WC and WC/MgO
	6.6 - c-BN
		6.6.1 - Synthesis of BN-nanotubes by RBM
	6.7 - NbN
	References
7 - Fabrication of nanocrystalline refractory materials
	7.1 - Introduction
	7.2 - Preparation challenges and difficulties
	7.3 - Synthesizing and properties of mechanically solid-state reacted tic powders
		7.3.1 - Consolidation ball-milled Ti55C45 nanopowder particles
		7.3.2 - Mechanical properties of consolidated Ti55C45
			7.3.2.1 - Microhardness
			7.3.2.2 - Elastic moduli
	7.4 - Other carbides produced by mechanical alloying
		7.4.1 - Fabrication of β-SiC powders
		7.4.2 - Fabrication of nanocrystalline WC powders
			7.4.2.1 - Top-down approach combined with spark plasma sintering for fabrication of superhard bulk WC nanocrystalline materials
		7.4.3 - Fabrication of nanocrystalline ZrC powders
		7.4.4 - Fabrication of nanocrystalline TiN powders
			7.4.4.1 - Powder preparation
			7.4.4.2 - Powder consolidation
			7.4.4.3 - Results
	References
8 - Fabrication of and consolidation of hard nanocomposite materials
	8.1 - Introduction and background
		8.1.1 - Nanocomposites
		8.1.2 - Metal-matrix nanocomposites (MMNCs)
	8.2 - Fabrications methods of particulate MMNCs
		8.2.1 - SiC/Al MMNCs
		8.2.2 - Fabrication of SiCp/Al MMNCs by mechanical solid-state mixing
			8.2.2.1 - Properties of mechanically solid-state fabricated SiCp/Al nanocomposites
			8.2.2.2 - Mechanism of fabrication
				8.2.2.2.1 - Formation of agglomerates coarse composite SiCp/Al powder particles
				8.2.2.2.2 - Disintegration of the agglomerates composite SiCp/Al powder particles
				8.2.2.2.3 - Formation of nanocomposite SiCp/Al powder particles
				8.2.2.2.4 - Consolidation of nanocomposite SiCp/Al powder particles
	8.3 - WC-based nanocomposites
		8.3.1 - WC/Al2O3 nanocomposite
		8.3.2 - WC-5Co-1Cr-3MgO-0.7VC-0.3Cr3C2 nanocomposite
		8.3.3 - WC-5Co-1Cr-3MgO-0.7VC-0.3Cr3C2 nanocomposite
	8.4 - Fabrication of metal matrix/carbon nanotubes nanocomposites by mechanical alloying
	References
9 - Solid-state hydrogen storage nanomaterials for fuel cell applications
	9.1 - Introduction
	9.2 - Hydrogen energy
		9.2.1 - Hydrogen economy
		9.2.2 - Hydrogen storage
			9.2.2.1 - Gaseous storage method
			9.2.2.2 - Liquid storage method
	9.3 - Solid-state hydrogen storage
		9.3.1 - Nanomaterials for hosting hydrogen
		9.3.2 - Metal hydrides
	9.4 - Magnesium hydride as an example of solid-state hydrogen storage material
		9.4.1 - Traditional approach for synthesizing commercial MgH2
		9.4.2 - Synthesizing of nanocrystalline MgH2 powders by reactive ball milling
			9.4.2.1 - High-energy reactive ball milling
			9.4.2.2 - Low-energy reactive ball milling
		9.4.3 - Characterization of reacted ball-milled MgH2 powders
			9.4.3.1 - Structural change of Mg powders upon RBM under hydrogen gas
			9.4.3.2 - Morphological changes of Mg powders upon RBM under hydrogen gas
			9.4.3.3 - Thermal stability of MgH2 powders obtained after different stages of RBM
			9.4.3.4 - Effect of RBM time on the hydrogenation/dehydrogenation behavior of MgH2
				9.4.3.4.1 - Pressure–composition–temperature (PCT)
				9.4.3.4.2 - Hiden Isotherma
				9.4.3.4.3 - Experimental procedure
	References
10 - Mechanically induced-catalyzation for improving the behavior of MgH2
	10.1 - Introduction
	10.2 - Scenarios for improving the behavior of MgH2
		10.2.1 - Alloying elements for improving the hydrogenation/dehydrogenation kinetics of Mg-based alloys
		10.2.2 - Doping MgH2 with catalysts
			10.2.2.1 - Metal and metal alloys
			10.2.2.2 - New approach for doping MgH2 with pure metals
			10.2.2.3 - New intermetallic catalytic agents
			10.2.2.4 - Catalyzation with metal/metal oxide nanocomposite powders
			10.2.2.5 - Catalyzation with titanium carbide nanopowders
		10.2.3 - Catalyzation with metastable phases of Zr-based nanopowders
			10.2.3.1 - Mechanism of enhancing MgH2 kinetics upon doping with metallic glassy abrasive nanopowders
	10.3 - Combination of cold rolling and ball milling for improving the kinetics behavior of MgH2 powders
	References
11 - Implementation of MgH2-based nanocomposite for fuel cell applications
	11.1 - Introduction
	11.2 - Hydrogen reactors
		11.2.1 - Bulk nanocomposite MgH2/10 wt.% (8 Nb2O5/2 wt.% Ni) system
			11.2.1.1 - Implementation of nanocomposite MgH2/8 wt.% Nb2O5/2 wt.% Ni green compacts for fuel cell applications
	References
12 - Utilization of ball-milled powders for surface protective coating
	12.1 - Introduction
	12.2 - Thermal spraying
		12.2.1 - Combustion-based processes
			12.2.1.1 - High velocity oxygen thermal spraying (HVOF)
			12.2.1.2 - Utilization of ball-milled powders as feedstock materials for HVOF
				12.2.1.2.1 - HVOF reactive spraying of mechanically alloyed Ni–Ti–C powders
				12.2.1.2.2 - HVOF of nanostructured Cr3C2-Ni20Cr coatings
				12.2.1.2.3 - HVOF of nanocrystalline iron aluminide
				12.2.1.2.4 - High-feed-milled HVOF sprayed WC-Co coatings
				12.2.1.2.5 - HVOF sprayed diamond reinforced bronze coatings
		12.2.2 - Cold spray process
			12.2.2.1 - Advantages
			12.2.2.2 - Mechanism
			12.2.2.3 - Cold spraying of metastable powders obtained by mechanical alloying
			12.2.2.4 - Cold spraying of metal matrix reinforced with carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
			12.2.2.5 - Cold spraying of metal matrix reinforced with diamond powders
			12.2.2.6 - Cold spraying of metal matrix reinforced with tungsten carbide
			12.2.2.7 - Applications of cold spray coating feedstock powders
	References
13 - Mechanically induced solid-state amorphization
	13.1 - Introduction
	13.2 - Fabrication of amorphous alloys by mechanical alloying process
	13.3 - Crystal-to-glass transition
		13.3.1 - The metastable phase diagram
	13.4 - Mechanism of amorphization by mechanical alloying process
		10.4.1 - Structural changes with the milling time
			10.4.1.1 - X-ray analysis
			10.4.1.2 - TEM observations
		13.4.2 - Morphology and metallography changes with the milling time
		13.4.3 - Thermal stability
			13.4.3.1 - Amorphization process
			13.4.3.2 - Crystallization process
			13.4.3.3 - Mechanism
				13.4.3.3.1 Amorphization via TASSA process: the early stage of milling
				13.4.3.3.2 The intermediate stage of milling: the role of amorphization via TASSA and MDSSA processes
				13.4.3.3.3 The final stage of milling: the role of amorphization via MDSSA process
	13.5 - The glass-forming range
	13.6 - Amorphization via mechanical alloying when ∆Hfor= Zero; mechanical solid-state amorphization of Fe50W50 binary system
		13.6.1 - Structural changes with the milling time
		13.6.2 - Magnetic studies
		13.6.3 - Thermal stability
		13.6.4 - Mechanism
			13.6.4.1 - The stage of composite FeW powder particles formation
			13.6.4.2 - The stage of formation of FeW solid solution
			13.6.4.3 - The stage of amorphous FeW formation
	13.7 - Special systems and applications
		13.7.1 - Amorphous austenitic stainless steel
		13.7.2 - Fabrication amorphous Fe52Nb48 special steel
		13.7.3 - Fe-Zr-B system
	13.8 - Difference between mechanical alloying and mechanical disordering in the amorphization reaction of Al50Ta50 in a rod...
		13.8.1 - Background
		13.8.2 - Procedure
		13.8.3 - Structural changes with milling time
		13.8.4 - Morphological changes with milling time
		13.8.5 - Thermal stability
		13.8.6 - Mechanism of formation of amorphous Al50Ta50 via MD method
	13.9 - Mechanically induced cyclic crystalline-amorphous transformations during mechanical alloying
		13.9.1 - Co-Ti binary system
			13.9.1.1 - Structural changes with the milling time
			13.9.1.2 - Thermal stability
		13.9.2 - Al-Zr binary system
			13.9.2.1 - Structural changes with the milling time
			13.9.2.2 - Thermal stability
		13.9.3 - Mechanism of amorphous-crystalline-amorphous cyclic phase transformations during ball milling
	13.10 - Consolidation of multicomponent metallic glassy alloy powders into full-dense bulk materials
		13.10.1 - Fabrication and consolidation of multicomponent Zr52Al6Ni8Cu14W20 metallic glassy alloy powders
			13.10.1.1 - Structural change
			13.10.1.2 - Thermal stability
			13.10.1.3 - Consolidation
		13.10.2 - Consolidation of mechanically alloyed Ti40.6Cu15.4Ni8.5Al5.5W30 metallic glassy alloy powders by SPS
	13.11 - Recent studies
	References
14 - Mechanical alloying for preparing nanocrystalline high-entropy alloys
	14.1 - Introduction
		14.1.1 - Traditional alloys
		14.1.2 - The birth of high-entropy alloys
		14.1.3 - Basic science behind the HEAs
		14.1.4 - Advantage and attractive properties of HEAs
			14.1.4.1 - Preparations
			14.1.4.2 - Properties
	14.2 - Preparations of nanocrystalline HEAs by mechanical alloying
		14.2.1 - Examples of recent HEAs systems prepared by mechanical alloying
			14.2.1.1 - Bulk nanocrystalline VNbMoTaW high-entropy alloy
			14.2.1.2 - High-entropy multicomponent WMoNbZrV alloy
			14.2.1.3 - High-pressure torsion-driven mechanical alloying of CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy
			14.2.1.4 - Magnetic properties of CoxCrCuFeMnNi high-entropy alloy powders
	References
15 - Biomedical applications of mechanically alloyed powders
	15.1 - Introduction
	15.2 - Metallic biomaterials
	15.3 - Mechanical alloying for fabrication of metallic biomaterials
		15.3.1 - Selected examples
			15.3.1.1 - Ti-based alloys
				15.3.1.1.1 - High strength, antibacterial, and biocompatible Ti-5Mo-5Ag alloy
				15.3.1.1.2 - Low-cost Ti-Mn-Nb alloys for biomedical applications
				15.3.1.1.3 - Low modulus titanium-niobium-tantalum-zirconium (TNTZ) alloy
				15.3.1.1.4 - β-type Ti-Nb-Ta-Zr-xHaP (x = 0, 10) alloy
				15.3.1.1.5 - Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloy with radial porous Ti-HA coatings
			15.3.1.2 - Mg-based alloys
				15.3.1.2.1 - High-performance MgFe biodegradable alloy
				15.3.1.2.2 - Biodegradable Mg-Zn/HA composite
				15.3.1.2.3 - Nanocrystalline AZ31 magnesium alloy with titanium additive
				15.3.1.2.4 - Lamellar structured degradable magnesium–hydroxyapatite implants
	References
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