Measurement techniques, sensors and platforms: a derivative or the encyclopedia of ocean sciences

Encylopedia of Ocean Sciences: Measurement Techniques, Sensors and Platforms
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Copyright page
......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Measurement Techniques, Sensors and Platforms: Introduction......Page 10
Research Vessels......Page 12
History......Page 14
The Nature of Research Vessels......Page 17
Design Characteristics of Oceanographic Vessels......Page 20
Research Vessel Operations......Page 22
Future Oceanographic Ships......Page 23
Lowered, Expendable, or Towed Instruments......Page 24
History......Page 26
Methods......Page 28
Results and Applications of the Data......Page 29
Further Reading......Page 35
Temperature......Page 36
Salinity......Page 39
Pressure......Page 41
Conductivity......Page 42
Further Reading......Page 44
Relevant Websites......Page 45
Drilling Technology......Page 46
Deep-Sea Sampling......Page 49
Drilling Measurements......Page 50
Further Reading......Page 53
Expendable Sensor Types......Page 54
Deployment Variations......Page 57
Data Recording and Handling......Page 58
Use for Ocean Surveying......Page 59
Further Reading......Page 60
Conventional Grab Samplers......Page 61
Warp Activation......Page 63
Alternatives to Grab Samplers......Page 66
Sampling Difficult Sediments......Page 68
Meiofauna Studies......Page 69
Further Reading......Page 70
Types of Towed Vehicles......Page 71
Tow Cable Drag......Page 72
Reduction of Cable Drag......Page 73
Basic Aerodynamics of the Towed Vehicle......Page 74
Effects of Wave-Induced Ship Motion on the Towed Vehicle......Page 77
Sensors......Page 78
Further Reading......Page 80
Net Systems......Page 81
Optical Systems......Page 90
Future Developments......Page 95
Further Reading......Page 97
Moorings, Floats, and Current Meters......Page 98
Surface Drifters......Page 100
Subsurface Floats......Page 103
Relevant Websites......Page 107
Subsurface Mooring Evolution......Page 108
Advances in Surface Mooring Technology......Page 111
Mooring Deployments......Page 117
Discussion and Summary......Page 119
Further Reading......Page 120
Vertically Cycling Sensors......Page 121
Free-fall Probes......Page 122
Acoustic Doppler Sensors......Page 123
Combined Approaches......Page 124
Further Reading......Page 125
Introduction......Page 126
Current Meter Design......Page 127
Mechanical Current Meters......Page 129
Electromagnetic Current Meters......Page 130
Directional Measurement......Page 131
Calibration, Evaluation and Intercomparison......Page 132
Further Reading......Page 133
Underwater Vehicles......Page 134
Enabling Deep Submergence Technologies......Page 136
Deep Submergence Science Topics......Page 138
Conclusions......Page 148
Further Reading......Page 150
A Short History......Page 151
Design Considerations......Page 152
Glider Dive Cycles......Page 154
Instrumentation......Page 155
Missions......Page 156
Relevant Websites......Page 158
History of Deep Submersibles......Page 159
Principles of Modern Submersibles......Page 161
Deep Submersibles in the World......Page 164
Major Contributions of Deep Submersibles......Page 165
Further Reading......Page 166
History......Page 167
Present Day Submersibles......Page 169
Summary......Page 171
Further Reading......Page 172
Introduction......Page 173
AUV Systems and Technology......Page 175
Using AUVs for Ocean Science......Page 179
Relevant Website......Page 184
Benthic Flux Measurement Strategies......Page 185
Benthic Chamber Landers......Page 186
Sensor Landers......Page 189
Special Landers and Lander-Based Research Strategies......Page 192
Relevant Website......Page 193
Basic Design Characteristics......Page 194
Scientific Research Vehicles......Page 197
Conclusion......Page 198
Further Reading......Page 199
Introduction......Page 200
Short Period (SP) Instruments......Page 202
Broadband (BB) Instruments......Page 204
Sensor Considerations......Page 206
Further Reading......Page 207
Human-Occupied Vehicles......Page 208
Remotely Operated Vehicles......Page 210
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles......Page 213
The Future......Page 218
Relevant Websites......Page 219
Sensors: Meteorology......Page 220
Wind Speed and Direction......Page 222
Humidity......Page 224
Satellite Measurements......Page 227
Further Reading......Page 228
Flux Measurements......Page 229
Shear Stress......Page 231
Motion Correction......Page 233
Heat Fluxes......Page 234
Conclusions......Page 236
Further Reading......Page 237
Sensors: Turbulence......Page 238
Understanding Turbulence in the Ocean......Page 240
Measuring Dissipation in the Ocean......Page 242
Turbulence Dissipation Sensors......Page 243
Conclusions......Page 245
Further Reading......Page 246
Sensors: Optical
......Page 248
Absorbance and Reflectance Spectroscopy......Page 250
Optical Fibers......Page 251
Optoelectronic Instrumentation......Page 252
Molecular Recognition Element......Page 253
Sensor Design......Page 254
Conclusions......Page 256
Further Reading......Page 257
Introduction......Page 258
Optical Models for Individual Particle or Population of Particles......Page 259
Modeling the Optical Properties of Ocean Waters in Relation to Their Biological State......Page 261
Conclusions......Page 266
Further Reading......Page 267
Estimating Abundance......Page 268
Phylogenetic Discrimination......Page 269
Physiological Applications......Page 270
Algal and Aquatic Plant Productivity......Page 271
Scales of Productivity Measurements......Page 273
Further Reading......Page 274
Relevant Websites......Page 275
Introduction......Page 276
Techniques......Page 277
Applications......Page 280
Conclusion......Page 281
Further Reading......Page 282
Fundamentals of Ocean Optics......Page 283
Instrumentation......Page 284
Optical Experiment Data Sets......Page 287
Toward the Future......Page 291
Further Reading......Page 292
Optics of Nephelometers: What They ’See’......Page 293
Nepheloid Layer Features......Page 296
Decay of Concentration: Aging of Particulate Populations......Page 297
Chemical Scavenging by Particles in Nepheloid Layers......Page 298
The Turbidity Minimum......Page 300
Boundary Mixing, INLs, and Inversions......Page 301
Further Reading......Page 302
Analytical Flow Cytometry......Page 304
Optical Plankton Counting......Page 309
Particle Imaging Instruments......Page 311
Further Reading......Page 312
Optical Properties of the Abiotic Constituents of Sea Waters......Page 313
Photochemical Production of Reactive Oxygen Species......Page 315
Photochemical Production and Consumption of LMW Organic Compounds and Trace Gases......Page 317
Photochemical Calculations......Page 319
Further Reading......Page 322
Radiometric Quantities......Page 324
Inherent Optical Properties......Page 326
Apparent Optical Properties......Page 328
Optical Constituents of Seawater......Page 329
Examples of Underwater Light Fields......Page 330
Further Reading......Page 333
Measurements and Fundamental Values......Page 334
Sensors......Page 336
Scattering Sensors......Page 338
Applications......Page 340
Further Reading......Page 343
Sensors: Chemical......Page 344
Air-Segmented Continuous Flow
Analyzers......Page 346
Flow Injection Analysis......Page 347
In Situ Monitoring......Page 349
Further Reading......Page 350
Acoustic Methods......Page 352
Introduction: Sediments and Why Sound Is Used......Page 354
Some Historical Background......Page 355
What Can Be Measured?......Page 356
A Case Study of Waves over a Rippled Bed......Page 360
Discussion and Conclusions......Page 364
Relevant Websites......Page 367
ULF Band: Wave-Wave Interaction Noise......Page 368
VLF Band: Atmospheric Turbulence Forcing as a Noise Source......Page 370
LF Band: Distant Shipping Noise......Page 371
MF Band: Wind-driven Sea Surface Noise......Page 373
Further Reading......Page 376
Physical Basis for Scattering......Page 378
Quantification of Scattering......Page 379
Fish as Scatterers......Page 381
Zooplankton as Scatterers......Page 383
Other Organisms as Scatterers......Page 384
Challenges......Page 385
Further Reading......Page 386
Method......Page 387
Application......Page 388
Further Reading......Page 390
Introduction......Page 391
Biot-Stoll Model......Page 392
Seismo-acoustic Waves in the Vicinity of the Water-Sediment Interface......Page 394
Techniques to Measure Geoacoustic Parameters of Marine Sediments......Page 396
Conclusions......Page 406
Further Reading......Page 407
History......Page 408
Arctic Ocean Sound Speed Structure......Page 410
Propagation......Page 411
Ambient Noise......Page 414
Conclusions......Page 415
Further Reading......Page 416
Units......Page 417
Sound Propagation......Page 418
Scattering and Reverberation......Page 421
Ambient Noise......Page 423
Sonar Equation......Page 425
Further Reading......Page 426
The Ocean Acoustic Environment......Page 428
Transmission Loss......Page 429
Transmission-loss Data......Page 432
Signal Transmission in the Time Domain......Page 434
Further Reading......Page 435
Elementary Acoustics......Page 436
Relating Acoustic Structure to Biological Function of Marine Mammal Calls......Page 437
Marine Mammal Hearing......Page 438
Vocalizations of Marine Mammals......Page 439
Mechanisms of Sound Production......Page 440
Methods for Bioacoustic Research......Page 441
Further Reading......Page 442
Primer on the Method......Page 443
Comparison with Other Marine Acoustic Technology......Page 444
Observations......Page 445
Further Reading......Page 452
Introduction and Short History......Page 453
Active Sonar systems......Page 454
Passive Sonars......Page 458
Passive Sonar Beamforming......Page 460
Further Reading......Page 461
Ocean Acoustics: The Forward Problem......Page 462
The Inverse Problem......Page 465
Selected Tomographic Results......Page 471
Further Reading......Page 478
Satellite, Aircraft, or Ship-Borne Remote Sensing......Page 480
Introduction......Page 482
Active Systems......Page 483
Passive Systems......Page 485
Hyper-spectral Systems......Page 486
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)......Page 488
Microwave Salinometers......Page 489
Further Reading......Page 490
Infrared Measurement Theory......Page 491
IR Radiometer Design......Page 494
Application of IR Radiometers......Page 496
Future Direction and Conclusions......Page 501
Further Reading......Page 502
Coastal Water Optics......Page 503
Algorithms for Coastal Waters......Page 506
Data Validation and Measurement Protocols......Page 507
Remote Sensing Coastal Applications......Page 508
Further Reading......Page 511
Gravitational Sea Surface Topography......Page 513
Dynamic Sea Surface Topography......Page 514
Sea Level Variability......Page 516
Further Reading......Page 519
The Early Era......Page 520
The Second Generation......Page 523
The Third Generation......Page 524
Implementing the Third Generation......Page 526
Challenges Ahead......Page 529
Appendix 1: A Brief Overview of
Satellite Remote Sensing
......Page 532
Further Reading......Page 533
Relevant Websites......Page 534
Background on Satellite Passive-Microwave Sensing of Sea Ice......Page 535
Satellite Passive-Microwave Instruments......Page 536
Sea Ice Determinations from Satellite Passive-Microwave Data......Page 537
Relevant Websites......Page 544
Satellite Scatterometers......Page 546
The Normalized Radar Cross-section of the Sea......Page 548
Spaceborne Scatterometer Wind Measurements......Page 551
Calibration......Page 553
Limitations and Improvements......Page 555
Conclusion......Page 557
Further Reading......Page 558
Measurement Principle......Page 559
Spacecraft Instruments......Page 562
Applications......Page 565
Future Developments......Page 569
Further Reading......Page 570
History......Page 571
Imaging Mechanism of Ocean Features......Page 572
Examples of Ocean Features from SAR Applications......Page 574
Discussion......Page 580
Further Reading......Page 581
Ocean Color Theoretical and Observational Basis......Page 582
Satellite Ocean Color Methodology......Page 584
Satellite Ocean Color Data Sets and Applications......Page 593
Relevant Website......Page 594
Definition and Theory......Page 595
Requirements for Observing Salinity from Satellite......Page 597
Further Reading......Page 600
Flux Estimation Using Satellite Observations......Page 601
Summary and Applications......Page 607
Further Reading......Page 609
Relevant Websites......Page 610
Units......Page 611
Measurement of Marine Gravity......Page 612
Reduction of Marine Data......Page 613
History......Page 614
Interpretation of Marine Gravity......Page 615
Further Reading......Page 618
Appendices......Page 620
Appendix 1. SI Units and Some Equivalences......Page 622
Other Quantities Related to Density......Page 625
Specific Heat......Page 627
Freezing Point of Sea Water......Page 628
Further Reading......Page 629
Index......Page 630