Measurement Instrumentation Sensors

Practical Blackbodies......Page 0
Section I Measurement Characteristics......Page 14
Preface......Page 2
Editor-in-Chief......Page 4
Advisory Board......Page 5
Contributors......Page 6
1.1 Simple Instrument Model......Page 24
Passive and Active Sensors......Page 25
Modifying and Interfering Inputs......Page 26
Accuracy and Error......Page 27
Systematic Error Sources (Bias)......Page 28
Random Error Sources (Noise)......Page 29
Sensor Fusion......Page 30
Estimation......Page 31
2.1 Null Instrument......Page 33
2.2 Deflection Instrument......Page 34
2.3 Analog and Digital Sensors......Page 36
2.4 Analog and Digital Readout Instruments......Page 37
2.5 Input Impedance......Page 38
Defining Terms......Page 39
3. Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrumentation......Page 41
3.1. Static Characteristics of Instrument Systems......Page 45
Drift......Page 47
Bias......Page 48
Error of Nonlinearity......Page 49
Dealing with Dynamic States......Page 51
Characteristic Equation Development......Page 53
Zero-Order Blocks......Page 55
First-Order Blocks......Page 56
Second-Order Blocks......Page 57
3.3 Calibration of Measurements......Page 59
References......Page 62
4.1 Error: The Normal Distribution and the Uniform.........Page 64
ISO Classifications......Page 67
Random......Page 70
Systematic......Page 71
Engineering System Total Uncertainty......Page 72
Calculation Example......Page 73
Defining Terms......Page 75
References......Page 76
Section II Spatial Variables Measurement......Page 78
5.2 What Are Standards?......Page 79
5.3 A Conceptual Basis of Measurements......Page 81
5.4 The Need for Standards......Page 82
Defining Terms......Page 83
References......Page 89
6. Displacement Measurement, Linear and Angular......Page 91
6.1 Resistive Displacement Sensors......Page 92
Resistive Element......Page 93
Electrical Characteristics......Page 94
Mechanical Characteristics......Page 97
Mechanical Mounting Methods......Page 98
Implementation......Page 101
6.2 Inductive Displacement Sensors......Page 105
The Single-Coil Linear Variable-Reluctance Sensor......Page 107
The Variable-Differential Reluctance Sensor......Page 108
Variable-Reluctance Tachogenerators......Page 109
Synchros......Page 111
Variable-Coupling Transducers......Page 113
Induction Potentiometer......Page 115
Appendix to Section 6.2......Page 126
Variable Distance Displacement Sensors......Page 127
Variable Area Displacement Sensors......Page 128
Variable Dielectric Displacement Sensors......Page 129
Aluminum Type Capacitive Humidity Sensors......Page 136
Capacitive Moisture Sensors......Page 137
Operational Amplifiers and Charge Amplifiers......Page 138
Square Wave Linearization......Page 140
Feedback Linearization......Page 141
Appendix to Section 6.3......Page 142
6.4 Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors......Page 143
Piezoelectric Ceramics......Page 145
Perovskites......Page 146
Processing of Piezoelectric Ceramics......Page 147
Piezoelectric Ceramic/Polymer Composites......Page 148
Suppliers of Piezoelectric Materials......Page 149
6.5 Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors......Page 155
Longitudinal Zeeman Effect......Page 157
Two-Frequency Heterodyne Interferometer......Page 161
Single-Mode Homodyne Interferometer......Page 163
6.6 Bore Gaging Displacement Sensors......Page 168
Gages That Control Dimensions......Page 169
Gages That Control Geometry......Page 170
6.7 Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors......Page 182
Ultrasound Transducers......Page 185
6.8 Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors......Page 188
Absolute Encoders......Page 190
Incremental Encoders Quadrature Signals......Page 195
Geometric Masking......Page 200
Moir» Fringes......Page 201
Diffraction-Based Encoders......Page 203
6.9 Magnetic Displacement Sensors......Page 209
6.10 Synchro/Resolver Displacement Sensors......Page 218
Equipment Needed for Testing Resolvers......Page 221
Resolver Benefits......Page 224
Applications......Page 225
Resolver-to-Digital Conversion......Page 228
Encoder Emulation......Page 229
Time Constants......Page 230
6.11 Optical Fiber Displacement Sensors......Page 231
Principle of Operation......Page 235
Fabrication Techniques......Page 236
Bragg Grating Sensors......Page 238
Limitations of Bragg Grating Strain Sensors......Page 239
Principle of Operation......Page 240
Fabrication Procedure......Page 241
Temperature Sensitivity of Long-Period Gratings......Page 243
6.12 Optical Beam Deflection Sensing......Page 246
Knife-Edge Photodetector......Page 247
Bicell Detector......Page 249
Continuous Position Sensor......Page 251
References......Page 255
7. Thickness Measurement......Page 258
Mechanical......Page 259
Electronic Gages......Page 260
Pneumatic Gaging......Page 261
Hall Effect Gage......Page 262
Far-Field/Resonance: Ultrasound, Interferometry, E.........Page 263
7.2 Future Directions in Thickness Measurement......Page 264
Nanoscale-Scanning Probe Microscopy......Page 265
References......Page 266
8.1 Proximity Definition......Page 268
8.3 Technologies for Proximity Sensing......Page 269
Phase Modulation......Page 270
Amplitude Modulation......Page 273
Geometrical Techniques......Page 277
Capacitive Sensors......Page 280
Magnetic Sensors......Page 281
References......Page 282
9.1 Basic Distinctions Between Range Measurement T.........Page 285
Active or Passive......Page 286
Triangulation......Page 287
Field-Based Approaches......Page 288
Sound......Page 289
Radio Frequencies......Page 290
9.2 Performance Limits of Ranging Systems......Page 291
Depth of Field......Page 292
Maximum Range......Page 293
Laser-Based Active Triangulation Ranging and Range.........Page 294
Light Plane Principle......Page 295
Laser-Based Lidar Range Imaging Sensors......Page 296
Resonating Lidar (Frequency-Based Detection)......Page 297
Magnetic Position Tracking......Page 298
9.4 A Sampling of Commercial Ranging, Range Imagin.........Page 299
10.1Altitude Measurement......Page 303
Navigation Accuracy Measurement System......Page 304
Height Estimation with a Single Air-Traffic Contro.........Page 306
Height Estimation with one SSR and One Omni Radar .........Page 307
Height Measurement by Quadrilateration......Page 310
Height Estimation with SSRs and Pseudoranges......Page 312
Height Measurement with SSRs and Range Differences.........Page 313
Onboard Derived Height Estimation......Page 314
Estimation of Vertical Position with the Global Po.........Page 315
Existence and Uniqueness of Position Fix......Page 316
Attitude Sensors for Ships, Aircraft, and Crane Li.........Page 319
Attitude Sensors for Spacecraft Applications......Page 321
Location of Sensors and Outputs......Page 323
Dynamics of Attitude Signals......Page 324
On-Line Attitude Measurement......Page 325
Attitude Measurement for Crane Lifters......Page 326
Vertical and Directional Gyro Analysis......Page 328
Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs)......Page 331
Attitude Determination Methodology......Page 332
PALADS......Page 335
The Principles......Page 336
Gyroscopes......Page 338
Accelerometers......Page 342
Errors and Stabilization......Page 343
Vehicular Inertial Navigation......Page 345
Proximity Beacon......Page 346
Aircraft......Page 347
The Honeywell Modular Azimuth Position System (MAP.........Page 348
Hitachi Fiber-Optic Gyroscopes......Page 349
10.4 Satellite Navigation and Radiolocation......Page 350
Accuracy of Electronic Fix......Page 353
Radiobeacons......Page 354
Loran-C......Page 355
Decca......Page 356
Omega......Page 357
Satellite Relay Systems......Page 358
Global Satellite Navigation Systems......Page 360
The Starfix......Page 363
10.5 Occupancy Detection......Page 364
Microwave Motion Detectors......Page 365
Micropower Impulse Radar......Page 366
Triboelectric Detectors......Page 367
Optoelectronic Motion Detectors......Page 368
Sensor Structures......Page 369
Facet Focusing Element......Page 370
PIR Motion Detectors......Page 371
AFIR Motion Detectors......Page 373
11. Level Measurement......Page 376
Displacer......Page 377
Float......Page 379
Pressure Gages......Page 380
Balance Method......Page 381
Microwaves......Page 382
Laser/Light......Page 386
Commonly Used Evaluation Methods......Page 387
Electrical Properties......Page 389
Radiation Attenuation......Page 391
Thermal and Mechanical......Page 392
11.4 Instruments......Page 393
References......Page 394
Planimeter......Page 397
Digitizer......Page 400
12.2 Equipment and Experiment......Page 402
12.3 Evaluation......Page 407
Further Information......Page 408
13. Volume Measurement......Page 410
13.1 Plethysmography Theory......Page 411
Air/Water Plethysmography or Chamber Plethysmography......Page 412
Electrical Plethysmography......Page 413
13.2 Numerical Integration with Imaging......Page 415
13.3 Indicator Dilution Methods......Page 420
Thermodilution......Page 421
Radionuclide Techniques......Page 422
13.4 Water Displacement Volumetry......Page 423
13.6 Evaluation......Page 425
References......Page 426
Further Information......Page 428
14.1 Angle Gage Blocks......Page 430
14.3 Optical Comparator......Page 431
14.4 Protractor......Page 432
14.6 Sine Plate......Page 434
Further Information......Page 436
15.1 Tiltmeters or Inclinometers......Page 438
15.2 Geodetic Leveling......Page 441
15.3 Hydrostatic Leveling......Page 442
15.4 Suspended and Inverted Plumb Lines......Page 444
References......Page 446
Appendix......Page 448
16.1 Introduction......Page 450
16.2 Measurement of Linear Velocity......Page 451
Reference-Based Measurement......Page 452
Doppler Shift......Page 453
VISAR System......Page 454
Seismic Devices......Page 455
Optical Sensors......Page 460
Wiegand Effect......Page 461
Gyroscopes......Page 462
References......Page 465
17. Acceleration, Vibration, and Shock Measurement......Page 467
Periodic Vibrations......Page 469
Stationary Random Vibrations......Page 470
Nonstationary Random Vibrations......Page 471
17.2 Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers......Page 472
Coil-and-Magnetic Type Accelerometers......Page 473
17.3 Piezoelectric Accelerometers......Page 477
17.5 Differential-Capacitance Accelerometers......Page 480
17.7 Seismic Accelerometers......Page 483
17.8 Inertial Types, Cantilever, and Suspended- Mass Configuration......Page 487
17.9 Electrostatic Force Feedback Accelerometers......Page 489
17.10 Microaccelerometers......Page 490
17.12 Selection, Full-Scale Range, and Overload Capability......Page 492
The Sensitivity, Mass, and Dynamic Range......Page 493
Signal Conditioning Piezoelectric Accelerometers......Page 494
Microaccelerometers......Page 496
List of Manufacturers......Page 498
Section IV Mechanical Variables Measurement — Solid......Page 15
18. Time Measurement......Page 500
18.1 The Evolution of Clocks and Timekeeping......Page 501
18.3 Time Scales and the SI Definition of the Second......Page 502
18.4 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)......Page 503
Time Transfer Methods......Page 504
18.6 Radio Time Transfer Signals......Page 507
LF Radio Signals (including WWVB and LORAN-C)......Page 508
Global Positioning System (GPS)......Page 510
Dial-Up Time Setting Services......Page 512
Network Time Setting Services......Page 514
References......Page 515
19.1 Overview of Frequency Measurements and Calibr.........Page 518
19.2 The Specifications: Frequency Uncertainty and Stability......Page 520
19.3 Frequency Standards......Page 524
Quartz Oscillators......Page 525
Cesium Oscillators......Page 527
19.4 Transfer Standards......Page 528
WWVB......Page 530
LORANC Performance......Page 531
Global Positioning System (GPS)......Page 532
GPS Receiving Equipment......Page 533
19.5 Calibration Methods......Page 534
References......Page 540
20.1 Weighing Instruments......Page 543
20.2 Weighing Techniques......Page 547
References......Page 552
21. Density Measurement......Page 554
21.2 Fluid Density......Page 555
Buoyancy-Type Densitometers......Page 556
Hydrometers......Page 557
Balanced-Flow Vessel......Page 558
Gas Specific Gravity Balance......Page 559
Column-Type Densitometers......Page 560
Vibrating Tube Densitometers......Page 562
Vibrating Cylinder Densitometers......Page 563
Radioactive Densitometers......Page 564
Coriolis Densitometers......Page 566
Absorption-Type Densitometers......Page 567
List of Manufacturers......Page 568
22.1 Fundamental Definitions of Strain......Page 571
22.2 Principles of Operation of Strain Sensors......Page 576
Piezoresistive Semiconducting Gages......Page 582
Piezoelectric Gages......Page 583
Fiber Optic Strain Gages......Page 585
Birefringent Film Strain Sensing......Page 586
Moiré Strain Sensing......Page 587
References......Page 589
23.2 Hooke’s Law......Page 591
23.3 Force Sensors......Page 593
Strain Gages......Page 594
Multicomponent Dynamometers Using Quartz Crystals .........Page 599
Measuring Signals Transmitted by Telemetry.......Page 600
Capacitive Force Transducer......Page 601
Force Sensing Resistors (Conductive Polymers)......Page 602
Tactile Sensors......Page 603
Tactile Array Sensor.......Page 604
References......Page 606
24.1 Fundamental Concepts......Page 608
Force, Torque, and Equilibrium......Page 609
Work, Energy, and Power......Page 610
24.2 Arrangements of Apparatus for Torque and Powe.........Page 611
Twist Angle......Page 612
Stress......Page 613
Mechanical Considerations......Page 614
Electrical Considerations......Page 615
Absorption Dynamometers......Page 616
Costs......Page 620
References......Page 621
25.1 Sensing Classification......Page 624
Simplified Theory for Tactile Sensing......Page 625
Requirements for Tactile Sensors......Page 627
Resistive......Page 628
Capacitive......Page 629
Piezoelectric......Page 631
Optical......Page 633
Photoelastic......Page 636
References......Page 638
V Mechanical Variables Measurement — Fluid......Page 16
Basic Definitions......Page 642
Sensing Principles......Page 643
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors.......Page 645
Silicon Micromachined Pressure Sensors......Page 646
Silicon Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor Limitations.........Page 648
Liquid Wall Gages......Page 652
Bourdon Gages.......Page 656
Thermal Conductivity Gages......Page 657
Pirani Gages.......Page 658
Thermistor Gages.......Page 659
Convection Gages.......Page 660
Triode Hot Cathode Ionization Gages.......Page 662
Bayard–Alpert Hot Cathode Ionization Gages.......Page 665
Cold Cathode Ionization Gages......Page 667
Resonance Gages......Page 668
Molecular Drag (Spinning Rotor) Gages......Page 669
Partial Pressure Measurements and Mass Spectromete.........Page 671
Definition of Basic Ultrasound Parameters......Page 674
Conceptual Description of Ultrasound Imaging and M.........Page 676
Single-Element and Array Transducers......Page 678
Reflection (or Transmission) Detected or Not......Page 679
Ultrasound Theory and Applications......Page 680
Wave Propagation in Homogeneous Media......Page 681
Acoustic Intensity and Sound Levels......Page 682
Wave Propagation Across Layers and Boundaries......Page 683
Attenuation: Its Origin, Measurement, and Applicat.........Page 686
CW Fields from Planar Piston Sources......Page 687
Generation of Ultrasound: Piezoelectric and Magnet.........Page 689
Piezoelectric Materials.......Page 690
M-mode.......Page 691
Flow Measurements by Doppler Signal Processing......Page 692
Upstream/Downstream Volume Flow Measurements......Page 693
Advanced Topics in Ultrasound......Page 694
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction.......Page 695
Received Signal in Pulse-Echo Ultrasound.......Page 696
References......Page 697
27. Acoustic Measurement......Page 700
27.1 The Wave Equation......Page 701
27.3 Spherical Waves......Page 702
27.4 Acoustic Measurements......Page 703
Condenser Microphones......Page 704
27.5 Sound Pressure Level Measurements......Page 708
27.6 Frequency Analyzers......Page 711
27.7 Pressure-Based Measurements......Page 712
27.8 Sound Intensity Measurements......Page 713
27.9 Near-Field Acoustic Holography Measurements......Page 716
27.10Calibration......Page 720
References......Page 724
28. Flow Measurement......Page 726
Important Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes......Page 727
BernoulliÌs Equation......Page 728
The Orifice Plate......Page 730
The Nozzle......Page 732
Performance and Applications......Page 733
Installation......Page 734
Differential Pressure Measurement......Page 735
Future Developments......Page 736
References......Page 737
Rotameter......Page 738
Movable Vane Meter......Page 742
Weir, Flume......Page 743
Rotameter......Page 746
Weir, Flume......Page 751
Rotameter: Internal Flow Analysis......Page 753
28.3 Positive Displacement Flowmeters......Page 758
Some Commercially Available PD Meter Designs......Page 759
Piston Type PD Meter......Page 760
Oval Gear PD Meter......Page 761
Roots PD Meter......Page 762
Advantages and Disadvantages of PD Meters......Page 763
Accessories......Page 764
28.4 Turbine and Vane Flowmeters......Page 765
General Performance Characteristics......Page 766
Theory......Page 767
Calibration, Installation, and Maintenance......Page 770
Design and Construction......Page 771
Dual-Rotor Axial Turbines......Page 773
Insertion Axial Turbine Flowmeters......Page 774
Angular Momentum Flowmeters......Page 775
Multijet Turbine Flowmeters......Page 776
Conclusion......Page 777
References......Page 778
Further Information......Page 781
28.5 Impeller Flowmeters......Page 782
Sensing Principles......Page 784
Installation......Page 785
Manufacturers......Page 786
Flowmetrics......Page 787
FaradayÌs Law of Induction......Page 788
Construction and Operation of Electromagnetic Flowmeters......Page 790
AC Magnetic Flowmeters......Page 792
Dc Magnetic Flowmeters......Page 793
Installation and Practical Applications of Electromagnetic Flowmeters......Page 794
Effects of Electric Conductivity of Fluid......Page 796
Signal Pickup and Demodulation Techniques......Page 797
Further Information......Page 798
28.7 Ultrasonic Flowmeters......Page 799
Principle of Operation......Page 800
Measurement of Flow in Open Channels......Page 807
Application: Penstock Leak Detection with Surge Chambers......Page 812
References......Page 813
Principle of Operation......Page 814
Calculation of Mass Flow and Standard Volume......Page 816
Flow Tube......Page 817
Transmitter......Page 818
Meter Selection......Page 821
Meter Installation......Page 822
Recent Developments......Page 823
28.9 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors......Page 824
Principles of Conventional Thermal Mass Flowmeters......Page 825
Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Sensors......Page 826
Calorimetric Sensors......Page 828
Conduction......Page 830
Convection......Page 831
Model for the Intrusive Type of Calorimetric Sensors......Page 834
Model for the Nonintrusive Type of Calorimetric Sensors......Page 835
Smart Thermal Flow Sensors and Advanced Evaluation Circuits......Page 837
The Electrical SigmaÒDelta Modulation for Calorimetric Sensors......Page 838
Temperature Dependence of Fluid Properties......Page 840
Instrumentation and Components......Page 841
References......Page 842
Theory of Operation......Page 843
Applications......Page 846
Design of the Flow Sensor......Page 847
Principle of Fluid Flow Measurement......Page 848
Implementation Using Resistive Strain Gages......Page 851
Optical Fiber Strain Gage Drag Force Flowmeter......Page 852
Fiber Optic Flow Sensor WITH Rubber Beam......Page 854
Conclusion......Page 855
References......Page 856
Theory......Page 858
Solution......Page 859
The Pitot Tube in Flow with Variable Density......Page 864
Volumetric Flow Measurements......Page 869
A Hybrid System......Page 872
Commercial Availability......Page 873
General Description......Page 875
Research Thermal Anemometers......Page 877
Principle of Operation......Page 879
Flow Calibration......Page 886
Measurements......Page 888
Turbulence......Page 889
Channel Flows......Page 891
Instrumentation Systems......Page 892
29.3 Laser Anemometry......Page 894
Fringe Model Description.......Page 896
Doppler Shift Explanation.......Page 897
Frequency Shifting......Page 899
Measuring Multiple Components of Velocity......Page 900
Signal Processing......Page 901
Seeding and Other Aspects......Page 903
Data Analysis......Page 904
Fringe Model Explanation......Page 905
Conclusion......Page 907
References......Page 908
Further Information......Page 911
30.1 Shear Viscosity......Page 913
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 914
Dimensions and Units of Viscosity......Page 916
Viscometer Types......Page 917
Concentric Cylinders......Page 918
Cone-and-Plate Viscometers......Page 920
Capillary Viscometers......Page 922
Falling Body Methods......Page 924
Falling Cylinder......Page 926
Falling Methods in Opaque Liquids......Page 928
Rising Bubble/Droplet......Page 929
Oscillating Method......Page 930
Ultrasonic Methods......Page 932
References......Page 934
31. Surface Tension Measurement......Page 937
31.1 Mechanics of Fluid Surfaces......Page 938
31.2 Standard Methods and Instrumentation......Page 941
Capillary Rise Method......Page 942
Wilhelmy Plate and du Noüy Ring Methods......Page 943
Maximum Bubble Pressure Method......Page 944
Pendant Drop and Sessile Drop Methods......Page 945
31.3 Specialized Methods......Page 946
Interfacial Tension......Page 947
References......Page 948
VII Electromagnetic Variables Measurement......Page 17
32. Temperature Measurement......Page 951
32.1 Bimaterials Thermometers......Page 952
Basic Equations......Page 953
Terminology and Simplifications......Page 956
Spiral and Helical Coil Configurations......Page 958
Sensitivity and Accuracy......Page 961
Defining Terms......Page 962
Introduction to Resistance Temperature Detectors......Page 963
Resistance of Metals......Page 964
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance......Page 965
RTD Construction......Page 966
Calibration......Page 969
Usage of RTDs Today......Page 973
Defining Terms......Page 974
32.3 Thermistor Thermometers......Page 975
Thermal Properties of NTC Thermistors......Page 978
VoltageÒCurrent Characteristics......Page 980
CurrentÒTime Characteristics......Page 981
ResistanceÒTemperature Characteristics......Page 982
Linear Conductance Networks......Page 985
Linear Resistance Networks......Page 989
The Simplest Thermocouple......Page 991
Simple Thermocouple Thermometry......Page 992
Absolute Seebeck Properties......Page 993
Realistic Thermocouple Circuits......Page 994
Reference Temperature......Page 995
Extension Leads......Page 996
Modular Signal Conditioning Components......Page 997
Grounding, Shielding, and Noise......Page 998
Grounding......Page 999
Balanced Thermocouple Circuits......Page 1000
Filtering......Page 1001
Transient Thermometry......Page 1002
Low Temperature Thermometry......Page 1003
Color Codes......Page 1005
Identifying Thermoelements......Page 1007
The Basic Thermoelectric Circuit Element......Page 1008
The T/X Visualization Sketch......Page 1009
The Significance of Inhomogeneity......Page 1013
The Principal Thermocouple......Page 1014
Monitoring Instruments......Page 1016
Temperature Exposure......Page 1017
Metallurgical Change......Page 1018
Recording......Page 1019
Extension Cable......Page 1020
Books, Reports, and Standards......Page 1021
References......Page 1022
32.5 Semiconductor Junction Thermometers......Page 1024
Thermal Properties of Semiconductors: Defining Equations......Page 1025
Integrated Temperature Sensors......Page 1027
Digital Output Temperature Sensor......Page 1028
Other Applications of Semiconductor Sensing Techniques......Page 1030
Temperature Sensing in Power ICs for Fault Protection and Diagnostics......Page 1032
Reliability Implications of Temperature to Electronic Components......Page 1034
Junction Temperature Measurement......Page 1035
Defining Terms......Page 1036
Thermal Radiation: Physical Laws......Page 1037
PlanckÌs Law......Page 1038
KirchhoffÌs Law......Page 1039
Emissivity......Page 1040
Quantum Detectors......Page 1044
Thermal Detectors......Page 1045
Disappearing Filament Pyrometer......Page 1050
Two-color Pyrometer......Page 1051
Continuous Monitoring of Temperature......Page 1052
Intermittent Monitoring of Temperature......Page 1053
Optical Choppers and Shutters......Page 1054
Waveguides......Page 1055
Error Sources in IR Thermometry......Page 1056
Semiconductor Materials......Page 1057
References......Page 1058
Pyroelectric Effect......Page 1059
Pyroelectric Materials......Page 1060
Manufacturing Process......Page 1061
Pyroelectric Sensors......Page 1063
Applications......Page 1066
General Description......Page 1067
Liquid Expansion......Page 1070
Separated Columns......Page 1072
Immersion Errors......Page 1074
Organic Liquids......Page 1076
Storage......Page 1077
References......Page 1078
Vapor Pressure......Page 1079
Gas Thermometry......Page 1080
32.10 Temperature Indicators......Page 1086
Seger Cones......Page 1087
Thermoscope Bars......Page 1090
Bullers Rings......Page 1091
Temperature-Indicating Pellets, Liquids, Crayons, and Monitors......Page 1093
Temperature-Indicating Paints and Crayons......Page 1097
Thermochromic Liquid Crystals......Page 1099
32.11 Fiber-Optic Thermometers......Page 1102
Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors......Page 1104
Fiber Optic Point Temperature Measurement Systems......Page 1105
Distributed and Quasi-distributed Optical Fiber Temperature Measurement Systems......Page 1108
Applications for Optical Fiber Temperature Probes......Page 1111
Further Information......Page 1112
33. Thermal Conductivity Measurement......Page 1114
33.1 Fundamental Equations......Page 1115
Parallel-Plate Instrument......Page 1116
Measurements on Solids......Page 1117
Transient Methods......Page 1118
Transient Hot-Wire Technique......Page 1119
Hot-Disk Instrument......Page 1120
Laser-flash Instrument......Page 1121
33.4 Appraisal......Page 1122
References......Page 1123
34. Heat Flux......Page 1126
Conduction......Page 1127
Radiation......Page 1128
One-Dimensional Planar Sensors......Page 1129
Circular Foil Gages......Page 1132
Research Sensors......Page 1133
Semi-Infinite Surface Temperature Methods......Page 1134
Calorimeter Methods......Page 1136
34.7 Summary......Page 1137
References......Page 1138
35.1 Essential Components......Page 1142
35.2 Thermal Imaging Wavebands......Page 1143
35.3 Emission from Source......Page 1145
Photon Detectors......Page 1146
Detector Performance Measures......Page 1148
35.6 Electronics......Page 1150
35.7 Optics and Scanning......Page 1151
35.9 Imager Performance......Page 1155
35.10Available Imagers......Page 1156
35.11Performance Trade-offs......Page 1157
35.12Future Trends in Thermal Imaging......Page 1159
References......Page 1160
36.1 Heat and Other Thermal Signals......Page 1163
Work and Enthalpy......Page 1164
Phase-Transition or Thermoelectric Compensation of.........Page 1165
Scanning Calorimetry Sweeps the Experiment Tempera.........Page 1166
Calibration of Calorimeters......Page 1168
36.5 Thermal Analysis of Materials and Their Behav.........Page 1169
Biological Analysis from Cells to Entire Human Bei.........Page 1170
What Do You Want To Measure?......Page 1171
Budget, and the Need of Pre- and After-Sales Servi.........Page 1172
36.9 Advanced Topic: Modulated or Dynamic DSC Oper.........Page 1173
PET Is Often Used as Example......Page 1174
Acknowledgments......Page 1175
References......Page 1177
37.1 Meter Voltage Measurement......Page 1180
Electromechanical Voltmeters......Page 1181
Electromagnetic Voltmeters......Page 1182
Dc Galvanometer.......Page 1183
Electrodynamic Voltmeters......Page 1185
Electrostatic Voltmeters......Page 1188
The Electrometer.......Page 1189
Electronic Voltmeters......Page 1190
Dc Analog Voltmeters.......Page 1191
Rectifier-Based ac Analog Voltmeters.......Page 1192
True rms Analog Voltmeters.......Page 1194
Digital Voltmeters......Page 1195
Dual Slope DVM.......Page 1196
Successive Approximation ADC.......Page 1198
Ac Digital Voltmeters.......Page 1199
Frequency Response of ac Voltmeters.......Page 1200
The Oscilloscope Block Diagram......Page 1201
The Oscilloscope As a Voltage Measurement Instrume.........Page 1202
Analog or Digital......Page 1205
Voltage Measurements......Page 1207
Understanding the Specifications......Page 1208
Selecting the Oscilloscope......Page 1213
Capacitive Sensors......Page 1221
Inductive Sensors......Page 1224
Other Methods......Page 1225
Defining Terms......Page 1226
38. Current Measurement......Page 1228
38.1 Definition of the Ampere......Page 1229
38.2 Magnetics......Page 1230
38.3 Shunts......Page 1232
38.5 The D’Arsonval Meter......Page 1233
38.8 The Current Transformer......Page 1234
38.9 Gapped Inductive Sensors......Page 1235
38.10Hall Effect Sensor......Page 1237
38.14Fluxgates......Page 1238
38.15Optical Sensors......Page 1239
38.19Current Actuated Switches and Indicators......Page 1240
38.20Where to Get Current Sensors......Page 1241
References......Page 1244
39.1 Power Measurements in dc Circuits......Page 1247
39.2 Power Measurements in ac Circuits......Page 1249
Low and Medium-Frequency Power Measurements......Page 1251
Thermal Wattmeters......Page 1252
Wattmeters Based on Multipliers......Page 1253
Wattmeters Based on Analog Multipliers......Page 1254
TDM-Based Wattmeters.......Page 1255
Hall Effect-Based Wattmeters.......Page 1256
Wattmeters Based on Digital Multipliers......Page 1257
Single-Phase Measurements......Page 1258
Measurements on Systems with Several Wires......Page 1259
Power Measurements on Three-Wire Systems......Page 1260
Symmetrical and Balanced Systems......Page 1261
Power Measurements Using Two Wattmeters......Page 1262
Symmetrical Power Systems Supplying Unbalanced Loa.........Page 1265
High-Frequency Power Measurements......Page 1267
Thermistor-Based Power Meters......Page 1270
Thermocouple-Based Power Meters......Page 1273
Calorimetric Method......Page 1274
Diode Sensor-Based Power Measurements......Page 1275
Radiation Sensor-Based Power Measurements......Page 1276
39.3 Pulse Power Measurements......Page 1277
References......Page 1278
40. Power Factor Measurement......Page 1282
40.1 Reasons for Interest in Power Factor......Page 1283
Single-Phase Circuits......Page 1284
Ac Power Examples......Page 1286
Power Factor......Page 1288
Polyphase Circuits......Page 1289
Nonsinusoidal Voltage and Current......Page 1290
Power Calculations......Page 1291
Power Factor......Page 1293
Polyphase Systems......Page 1295
Metering Applications......Page 1296
40.5 Instrumentation......Page 1297
References......Page 1300
41. Phase Measurement......Page 1302
41.1 Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase of a Sinusoid.........Page 1304
41.3 Phase Measurement Techniques......Page 1306
Lissajous Figures......Page 1307
Zero-Crossing Methods......Page 1309
The Three-Voltmeter Method......Page 1310
The Crossed-Coil Method......Page 1311
Synchroscopes and Phasing Lamps......Page 1312
Vector Voltmeters and Vector Impedance Methods......Page 1313
The Fast Fourier Transform Method......Page 1314
Phase-Locked Loops......Page 1315
The Phase-Locked Loop for Carrier Phase Tracking......Page 1316
41.5 Power Factor......Page 1317
41.6 Instrumentation and Components......Page 1318
References......Page 1320
42. Energy Measurement......Page 1322
42.1 Dc Energy Measurement......Page 1323
42.2 ac Induction Energy Meters......Page 1324
Voltage and Current Adapters for ac Electronic Ene.........Page 1326
Electronic-Analog Energy Meters with Digital Outpu.........Page 1327
All-Digital Energy Meters......Page 1328
42.4 Accuracy of Energy Meters......Page 1329
43.1 Basic Concepts......Page 1331
43.2 Simple Model and Theory......Page 1332
43.3 Experimental Techniques for Measuring Resisti.........Page 1334
Common Experimental Errors......Page 1335
Sheet Resistance Measurements......Page 1337
van der Pauw Technique......Page 1338
References......Page 1343
44. Charge Measurement......Page 1346
44.1 Electrostatic Voltmeters......Page 1348
44.2 Charge Amplifiers......Page 1350
Shunt Amplifiers......Page 1351
Feedback Amplifiers......Page 1352
44.3 Applications......Page 1354
References......Page 1355
45. Capacitance and Capacitance Measurements......Page 1358
45.1 Types of Capacitors......Page 1361
45.2 Characteristics of Capacitors......Page 1370
Capacitor Reliability......Page 1374
Capacitor Standard Values and Tolerances......Page 1375
Capacitors as Circuit Components......Page 1376
Distributed Capacitances in Circuits......Page 1378
Capacitor Equivalent Circuits......Page 1379
Series-Resistance-Capacitance Bridge......Page 1380
The Parallel-Resistance-Capacitance Bridge......Page 1381
The Wien Bridge......Page 1382
The Schering Bridge......Page 1383
46. Permittivity Measurement......Page 1386
46.1 Measurement of Complex Permittivity at Low Fr.........Page 1388
46.2 Measurement of Complex Permittivity Using Dis.........Page 1393
Resonant Cavity Method......Page 1394
A Nondestructive Method for Measuring the Complex .........Page 1395
References......Page 1397
47.1 Electrostatic Fields......Page 1399
Field Mills......Page 1400
Calibration Field......Page 1401
Natural Horizontal Electric Field at the Earth’s S.........Page 1402
47.3 Radio-Frequency and Microwave Techniques......Page 1403
Aperture Antennas......Page 1404
47.4 Three-Loop Antenna System......Page 1406
47.5 Broadband Dipole Antennas......Page 1408
References......Page 1410
48. Magnetic Field Measurement......Page 1413
48.1 Magnetic Field Fundamentals......Page 1414
48.2 Low-Field Vector Magnetometers......Page 1417
The Air Core Loop Antenna......Page 1419
The Rod Antenna......Page 1420
Signal Conditioning......Page 1422
The Fluxgate Magnetometer......Page 1423
The Fluxgate......Page 1424
Signal Conditioning......Page 1426
The SQUID Magnetometer......Page 1427
Signal Conditioning......Page 1428
48.3 High-Field Vector Gaussmeters......Page 1429
The Magnetoresistive Gaussmeter......Page 1432
Signal Conditioning......Page 1435
48.4 Scalar Magnetometers......Page 1436
The Proton Precession Magnetometer......Page 1438
The Optically Pumped Magnetometer......Page 1440
Defining Terms......Page 1442
References......Page 1444
49. Permeability and Hysteresis Measurement......Page 1447
Diamagnetism......Page 1448
Paramagnetism......Page 1449
Ferromagnetism......Page 1450
49.4 Core Loss......Page 1452
49.5 Measurement Methods......Page 1454
References......Page 1455
50. Inductance Measurement......Page 1457
50.1 Definitions of Inductance......Page 1458
50.2 Equivalent Circuits and Inductive Element Mod.........Page 1459
Current–Voltage Methods......Page 1461
Bridge Methods......Page 1464
Differential Methods......Page 1466
Resonance Methods......Page 1467
50.4 Instrumentation......Page 1468
References......Page 1469
51. Immittance Measurement......Page 1471
51.1 Definitions......Page 1472
51.2 Ideal Lumped Components......Page 1474
51.3 Distributed Elements......Page 1475
Transmission Lines......Page 1476
51.4 Interconnections and Graphical Representation.........Page 1477
Current–Voltage Methods......Page 1479
Bridge Methods......Page 1481
Network Analysis Methods......Page 1485
Time Domain......Page 1486
51.6 Instrumentation and Manufacturers......Page 1487
References......Page 1488
52.1 Basic Calculation of Q......Page 1491
52.2 Bandwidth and Q......Page 1493
52.3 The Q-Meter......Page 1494
52.5 Measuring Parameters Other than Q......Page 1495
References......Page 1497
53. Distortion Measurement......Page 1499
53.1 Mathematical Background......Page 1500
53.2 Intercept Points (IP)......Page 1506
53.3 Measurement of the THD......Page 1507
DSP Method......Page 1508
53.4 Conclusions......Page 1509
Defining Terms......Page 1510
54. Noise Measurement......Page 1512
54.3 Fluctuation Dissipation Theorem......Page 1513
54.5 Shot Noise......Page 1514
54.9 Partition Noise......Page 1515
54.11Noise Bandwidth......Page 1516
54.13Spot Noise......Page 1517
54.15Correlation Impedance and Admittance......Page 1518
54.17Measuring—vni2,—vn2,and—in2......Page 1519
54.19Noise Reduction with a Transformer......Page 1520
54.21Noise Factor and Noise Figure......Page 1521
54.22Noise Factor Measurement......Page 1522
54.23The Junction Diode Noise Model......Page 1523
54.24The BJT Noise Model......Page 1524
54.25The FET Noise Model......Page 1527
54.27Photodiode Detector Noise Model......Page 1528
54.28Piezoelectric Transducer Noise Model......Page 1529
54.29Parametric Amplifiers......Page 1530
54.30Measuring Noise......Page 1531
Defining Terms......Page 1533
References......Page 1534
55.1 Power Measurement......Page 1536
Measurement Errors and Uncertainties......Page 1537
Power Sensors......Page 1539
55.3 Spectrum Analysis......Page 1541
Spectrum Analyzer......Page 1543
Spectrum Analyzer Setup......Page 1544
Tracking Preselection......Page 1546
Commercially Available Spectrum Analyzers......Page 1547
55.4 Cavity Modes and Cavity Q......Page 1548
Introduction and Fundamentals......Page 1550
Calculations and Analysis with S-Parameters......Page 1551
Measurement of S-Parameters......Page 1555
References......Page 1558
VIII Optical Variables Measurement......Page 18
Introduction......Page 1561
Noise......Page 1564
Mercury Cadmium Telluride......Page 1566
Gallium Arsenide/Aluminum Gallium Arsenide QWIP......Page 1567
Instrumentation......Page 1568
Introduction......Page 1569
Theory......Page 1572
Output Current Under Reverse Bias......Page 1573
Phototransistors......Page 1574
Silicon Drift Detectors......Page 1575
Amorphous Silicon Detectors......Page 1576
InI......Page 1577
III–V Ternary Materials......Page 1578
Heterojunction Photojunction Detectors......Page 1579
Defining Terms......Page 1580
Introduction......Page 1581
CCD Operation and Data Reduction......Page 1583
CCD Signal-to-Noise Ratios (SNR)......Page 1584
CCD Structure and Charge Transport......Page 1585
Charge Transport......Page 1586
Input and Output Structures......Page 1588
Noise in CCDs......Page 1589
CCDs Applications to Light Sensing......Page 1590
CCD X-ray Imaging Spectroscopy......Page 1592
Future Improvements to CCDs......Page 1593
Thinned Gate CCDs......Page 1595
Radiation Damage......Page 1596
References......Page 1597
57.2 Monochrome Transmission Density......Page 1600
57.3 Monochrome Reflection Density......Page 1604
57.4 Color Transmission Densitometry......Page 1606
57.5 Color Reflection Densitometry......Page 1613
References......Page 1614
Appendix......Page 1616
58.1 Introduction......Page 1618
58.3 The CIE Standard Observers......Page 1623
58.4 Calculating Tristimulus Values......Page 1624
Specular and Diffuse Reflectance......Page 1625
Illuminating and Viewing Geometries for Reflectance......Page 1626
Which Illuminating and Viewing Geometry Is Best?......Page 1627
Sample Preparation......Page 1628
Sample Preparation......Page 1629
58.7 Color Difference Calculations......Page 1630
Retroreflecting Samples......Page 1632
58.9 Instrument Manufacturers......Page 1633
58.10 Defining Terms......Page 1634
References......Page 1635
Further Information......Page 1638
59.1 Basic Concepts......Page 1640
59.2 Optical Loss Mechanisms in Optical Fibers......Page 1642
Launching Losses......Page 1643
Connector Losses......Page 1644
Absorption Losses......Page 1645
Scattering Losses......Page 1646
59.3 Optical Time Domain Reflectometry Method......Page 1647
59.4 Standard Field Fiber Optic Attenuation Test......Page 1649
59.5 Out-of-Plane Scattering and Polarization Methods......Page 1650
Additional Information......Page 1652
60.1 Basic Concepts of Polarization......Page 1654
Polarization Ellipse......Page 1656
Jones Vector and Stokes Vector......Page 1657
60.3 Polarization of Light......Page 1659
Polarization by the Response of a Medium......Page 1660
Principal Coordinate System......Page 1661
Müeller Matrix......Page 1662
Depolarization......Page 1663
Coordinate Transformation......Page 1664
60.4 Principles of Polarimetry......Page 1666
Generation of Polarized Light......Page 1667
Polarizer–Sample–Analyzer Ellipsometry......Page 1668
Null Ellipsometry......Page 1670
60.5 Polarization Instrumentation and Experiments......Page 1671
Measurement of Optical Constants......Page 1674
References......Page 1675
61.1 Introduction......Page 1679
61.2 Physical Principles......Page 1680
Interferometry......Page 1682
Deviation Methods......Page 1683
Critical Angle Method......Page 1684
Microscopy and Scattering Methods......Page 1685
61.4 Review of Refractometers......Page 1686
References......Page 1687
62.1 Introduction......Page 1690
62.2 Extinction and Turbidity: Particles in a Nonabsorbing Medium......Page 1691
Single-Beam Instruments: Optics......Page 1693
Single-Beam Systems: Electronics......Page 1694
Dual-Beam Instruments: Optics......Page 1695
References......Page 1697
63.1 Introduction......Page 1700
63.2 Measurement of Laser Power......Page 1702
Photodiodes......Page 1703
63.3 Measurement of Laser Spectrum......Page 1704
Multibeam Interference......Page 1705
Diffraction Gratings......Page 1706
Scanning Fabry-Perot Interferometer......Page 1708
Michelson CW Laser Wavemeter......Page 1710
Pulsed Laser Wavemeter......Page 1712
63.5 Instrumentation and Components......Page 1713
References......Page 1714
X Chemical Variables Measurement......Page 19
64. Vision and Image Sensors......Page 1716
64.1 Image Formation......Page 1719
Television Camera Tubes......Page 1721
Charge-Coupled Devices......Page 1722
Area Charge-Coupled Devices......Page 1724
Photodiode Arrays......Page 1726
Serially-Switched Photodiode Arrays......Page 1727
Generation I Tubes......Page 1728
Generation II and III Tubes......Page 1729
64.4 Fiber Optic Scopes......Page 1730
64.5 Components and Trends......Page 1731
References......Page 1733
65.1 Radioactivity......Page 1736
Particle Emission Radioactivity......Page 1738
Electromagnetic Emission Radioactivity......Page 1742
Interactions with Matter......Page 1743
Neutron Interactions......Page 1746
Radioactivity Measurements......Page 1748
References......Page 1751
66. Radioactivity Measurement......Page 1755
Charge Transport......Page 1756
Ionization Chambers......Page 1757
Proportional Counters......Page 1759
Geiger-Müller Counters......Page 1760
Scintillation Detectors......Page 1761
Inorganics......Page 1762
66.2 Germanium Detectors......Page 1764
Leakage Current......Page 1766
Coaxial Detectors......Page 1767
X-Ray Detection......Page 1770
Current Status of HPGe Detector Technology......Page 1771
Surface Barrier Detector......Page 1772
Ion Implanted Detectors......Page 1773
Spatial Resolution......Page 1774
Drift Detectors......Page 1775
Present Status of Silicon Detector Technology......Page 1776
Theory of Operation......Page 1777
Operational Considerations......Page 1779
References......Page 1780
Energy Loss of Protons and Ions......Page 1784
Energy Loss of Electrons......Page 1786
Technologies......Page 1787
67.3 Gas-Filled Charged Particle Counters......Page 1789
Gas-Filled Proportional Counters......Page 1791
Fill Gases for Proportional Counters......Page 1792
Proportional Counters: Advanced Techniques......Page 1793
67.4 Scintillation Counters......Page 1794
Scintillation Counters: A Detailed Description......Page 1795
Light Coupling to Photon Detectors......Page 1796
Operating Information......Page 1797
Signal Generation......Page 1798
Categories of Detector......Page 1799
Detector Systems......Page 1801
Plasma Effects and Pulse Height Defect......Page 1803
References......Page 1804
68. Neutron Measurement......Page 1807
Detectors Based on Capture Reactions......Page 1808
Counters Based on Inelastic Scattering......Page 1809
Detectors Based on (n,p) or (n,a) Reactions......Page 1810
68.2 Efficiency Calculations......Page 1811
68.3 Summary......Page 1813
Defining Terms......Page 1814
References......Page 1815
69.1 Radiation Dosimetry Quantities and Units......Page 1817
69.2 Thermoluminescence Dosimetry......Page 1819
69.4 Film Dosimetry......Page 1823
69.5 Track-Etch Dosimetry......Page 1825
Alpha Track Dosimetry......Page 1827
69.6 Bubble Dosimetry......Page 1828
69.7 Electronic Personal Dosimeters......Page 1829
References......Page 1831
70.1 Electrochemical Composition Measurement......Page 1834
Basic Concepts and Definitions......Page 1835
The Nernst Equation......Page 1837
Classification of Electrodes......Page 1840
Reference Electrodes......Page 1841
The Standard Hydrogen Electrode.......Page 1843
The Calomel Electrode.......Page 1845
The Silver/Silver Chloride Electrode.......Page 1846
Instrumentation......Page 1847
Principles of Voltammetry......Page 1848
Diffusion Limitation of the Faradaic Current.......Page 1849
Amperometry.......Page 1852
Sampled-Current Voltammetry.......Page 1854
Linear Sweep and Cyclic Voltammetry.......Page 1855
Pulse Techniques.......Page 1858
Alternating Current Voltammetry.......Page 1860
Stripping Voltammetry.......Page 1861
Applications......Page 1862
Glass Electrodes.......Page 1863
Solid-State Electrodes.......Page 1864
Combined Electrodes.......Page 1866
Instrumentation and Measurement.......Page 1867
Chemically Sensitive Field-Effect Transistors.......Page 1869
Chemically Sensitive Capacitors.......Page 1872
Practical Applications and Limitations.......Page 1874
Measurement of Conductance and Instrumentation......Page 1875
Conductometric Titrations.......Page 1876
Conductometric Sensors.......Page 1877
Controlled-Potential Coulometry......Page 1878
Coulometric Titration (Controlled-Current Coulomet.........Page 1879
Thermogravimetry......Page 1882
Calibration......Page 1883
Kinetics of Reaction Including Measurement of a an.........Page 1884
Thermometric Titrimetry......Page 1885
Calibration of Probe......Page 1886
Apparatus......Page 1887
Modulated DSC......Page 1888
Predicting the Lifetime of a Product.......Page 1889
Characterization of Greases and Lubricants.......Page 1890
Defining Terms......Page 1891
Theoretical Aspects......Page 1894
Enzyme Reactions......Page 1897
Experimental......Page 1898
Mixing Methods......Page 1899
Relaxation Methods......Page 1900
Homogeneous Systems......Page 1901
Heterogeneous Systems......Page 1902
Noncatalytic Reactions......Page 1904
Defining Terms......Page 1905
Principles......Page 1907
Columns......Page 1908
Carrier Gas......Page 1910
Flame Ionization Detector (FID).......Page 1911
Electron Capture Detector (ECD).......Page 1912
Sample Injection......Page 1913
Columns.......Page 1914
Mobile Phase.......Page 1915
Injectors.......Page 1916
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS)......Page 1917
Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (LC–MS)......Page 1918
Applications in the Electricity Industry......Page 1919
Analysis of Antioxidants in Oil......Page 1920
Defining Terms......Page 1921
References......Page 1922
71.1 Definition of pH......Page 1925
The Glass Membrane Indicator Electrode......Page 1926
Glass Membrane Indicator Electrode Construction......Page 1927
Glass Membrane Indicator Electrode Response to pH......Page 1928
Reference Elements......Page 1929
Calibration......Page 1930
pHFETs......Page 1931
Instrumentation......Page 1932
71.3 Optical Methods of pH Measurement......Page 1933
Absorption Indicator Dyes......Page 1935
Construction and Instrumentation......Page 1937
References......Page 1939
72. Humidity and Moisture Measurement......Page 1942
The Condensation Dewpoint Hygrometer......Page 1945
The Psychrometer......Page 1946
Mechanical Hygrometers......Page 1947
Electric Relative Humidity Sensors......Page 1948
Infrared Methods......Page 1949
Infrared Techniques......Page 1950
FD......Page 1951
72.3 Formulae......Page 1952
References......Page 1953
73.1 Meteorological Measurement......Page 1956
Pressure......Page 1958
The Chilled Mirror Method.......Page 1959
Ultrasonic Wind Sensor.......Page 1960
Precipitation......Page 1961
Solar Radiation......Page 1962
The Pyranometer.......Page 1964
The Pyrheliometer.......Page 1965
Lidar Measurements......Page 1966
United States Weather Service Facilities......Page 1967
73.2 Air Pollution Measurement......Page 1971
Spectroscopic Principles......Page 1973
Absorption Techniques......Page 1974
Particulate Sampling......Page 1975
Drechsel Bottles......Page 1976
Active Aerosol Sampling......Page 1977
Fast Ambient Monitoring......Page 1978
Hydrocarbons......Page 1979
Remote Monitoring......Page 1980
Lidar......Page 1981
Isokinetic Sampling of Aerosol......Page 1982
Gas Sampling: Spectroscopic Methods......Page 1983
Defining Terms......Page 1984
73.3 Water Quality Measurement......Page 1987
Theory......Page 1988
Conductometric Sensors.......Page 1989
Optical Sensors......Page 1990
Colorimetry.......Page 1991
Remote Fiber-Optic Spectroscopy.......Page 1992
Instrumentation and Applications......Page 1993
Data Evaluation......Page 1995
Defining Terms......Page 1996
Passive and Active Sensors.......Page 1997
Atmospheric Interactions.......Page 1998
Spectral, Radiometric, Spatial, and Temporal Resol.........Page 1999
Super-Resolution.......Page 2000
Earth Science Applications.......Page 2001
Examples of Atmospheric Studies.......Page 2003
A Few Examples of Space Science Applications.......Page 2009
Image Restoration......Page 2010
Image Registration......Page 2011
Data Mining......Page 2012
Classification......Page 2013
Accuracy Assessment......Page 2014
Acknowledgments......Page 2015
References......Page 2016
XII Signal Processing......Page 20
74.1 Introduction......Page 2020
74.2 The Origins of Biopotentials......Page 2021
ECG......Page 2023
EOG......Page 2025
Gold Electrodes......Page 2026
Conductive Polymer Electrodes......Page 2027
The Instrumentation Amplifier......Page 2028
74.7 Circuit Enhancements......Page 2030
Electrical Interference Reduction......Page 2031
Filtering......Page 2033
Artifact Reduction......Page 2034
Electrode Use......Page 2035
Reduction of Environmental Interference......Page 2036
References......Page 2037
75.1 Introduction......Page 2040
Auscultatory Method......Page 2041
Oscillometric Method......Page 2042
Ambulatory Monitoring......Page 2043
Recommendations, Standards, and Validation Require.........Page 2044
Manufacturer, Product, Price, Efficacy, and Techno.........Page 2046
Advancement of Indirect Blood Pressure Measurement.........Page 2047
75.4 Direct Blood Pressure Measurement......Page 2051
75.5 Reproducibility, Accuracy, and Reliability Is.........Page 2052
75.6 Blood Pressure Impact, Challenge, and Future......Page 2053
References......Page 2057
Ultrasound Doppler......Page 2063
Laser Doppler Flowmetry......Page 2064
76.2 Indicator Dilution Methods......Page 2065
Thermal Dilution Method......Page 2066
Impedance Plethysmography......Page 2067
76.4 Radioisotopes......Page 2069
76.5 Thermal Convection Probes......Page 2070
References......Page 2071
Volume Measurements......Page 2074
Flow Measurements (Pneumotachometry)......Page 2075
Turbine Meter......Page 2076
Total-Body Plethysmograph (Constant-Volume Box)......Page 2077
Correcting to Standard Conditions......Page 2078
Hot Wire Pneumotachometer......Page 2079
Hot-Film Pneumotachometer......Page 2081
Ultrasonic Pneumotachometer......Page 2082
Measurement of Volume Using a PTM Plus an Integrat.........Page 2083
The Forced Oscillation Technique......Page 2084
Reference Impedance......Page 2086
References......Page 2087
78.1 Introduction......Page 2090
Oxygen Delivery......Page 2091
Measurement Methods......Page 2092
Hemoglobin......Page 2093
Oxygen Tension......Page 2094
Electrochemical PO2 Measurements......Page 2095
Optical-Based PO2......Page 2096
Oxygen Saturation......Page 2097
Transmission Oximetry......Page 2098
Pulse Oximetry......Page 2099
Reflectance Oximetry......Page 2101
pH Measurements......Page 2102
Electrolyte Concentration Measurements......Page 2103
78.5 Evaluation of Technology......Page 2104
References......Page 2106
79.2 Image Information Content......Page 2109
Measurement of Imaging Performance......Page 2110
79.3 X-Ray Imaging......Page 2111
79.4 Computed Tomography......Page 2112
Reconstruction of an Object from Projections......Page 2114
79.5 Nuclear Medicine......Page 2116
Measurement of Physiological Function......Page 2117
Measurement of Technical Performance......Page 2118
Detector Composition......Page 2119
PET Scanners......Page 2120
B-Mode Imagers......Page 2121
Doppler Techniques......Page 2122
Measurement of Ultrasound Instrument Performance......Page 2123
MR Imaging Techniques......Page 2124
MR Instrumentation......Page 2126
References......Page 2127
80.1 Introduction......Page 2134
Single-Ended and Differential Signals......Page 2135
Narrowband and Broadband Signals......Page 2137
Low- and High-Output-Impedance Signals......Page 2138
80.4 General Amplifier Parameters......Page 2139
80.5 Instrumentation Amplifiers......Page 2142
Instrumentation Amplifiers Built from Discrete Par.........Page 2146
80.6 Single-Ended Signal Conditioners......Page 2151
80.7 Carrier Amplifiers......Page 2153
80.9 Isolation Amplifiers......Page 2156
Logarithmic Amplification......Page 2158
Multiplication and Division......Page 2162
80.11Analog Linearization......Page 2163
Defining Terms......Page 2165
References......Page 2166
81.1 Introduction......Page 2168
81.3 Amplitude Modulation......Page 2169
Double-Sideband Amplitude Modulation......Page 2170
Generation of Double-Sideband AM Signals......Page 2171
Synchronous Demodulation of Double-Sideband AM Sig.........Page 2172
81.4 Angle (Frequency and Phase) Modulation......Page 2175
Demodulation of Phase- and Frequency-Modulated Sig.........Page 2178
Examples......Page 2182
Integrated Circuits......Page 2183
Instrumentation......Page 2184
Defining Terms......Page 2185
References......Page 2186
82.1 Introduction......Page 2188
82.3 The Filter Approximation Problem......Page 2189
Butterworth Filters......Page 2191
Chebyshev Filters or Chebyshev I Filters......Page 2194
Bessel Filters......Page 2195
Passive R, L, C Filter Design......Page 2196
Active Filter Design......Page 2198
82.5 Discrete-Time Filters......Page 2203
82.7 FIR Filter Design......Page 2205
Windowed FIR Filters......Page 2207
Optimum FIR Filters......Page 2208
82.8 IIR Filter Design......Page 2209
Cascade-Form IIR Filter Structures......Page 2211
82.9 Wave Digital Filters......Page 2212
82.10Anti-Aliasing and Smoothing Filters......Page 2214
82.12Adaptive Filters......Page 2215
Defining Terms......Page 2216
References......Page 2217
83.1 Spectrum Analysis and Correlation......Page 2219
Spectral Analysis......Page 2220
Correlation Analysis......Page 2223
Fast Fourier Transform......Page 2225
Limited Observation of Signal in Time......Page 2227
Sampling Properties of Spectral Estimators......Page 2229
FFT Correlation Analysis......Page 2230
Further Information......Page 2231
Defining Terms......Page 2232
83.2 RF/Microwave Spectrum Analysis......Page 2234
A Practical Approach to Spectrum Analysis [1]......Page 2236
Family 1......Page 2239
Family 4......Page 2240
Advanced Applications......Page 2241
References......Page 2242
84.1 Introduction......Page 2244
84.3 Overview of Applied Intelligence Methods......Page 2245
84.4 Mapping, in General......Page 2246
Rules about a Decision-Making Process......Page 2247
Brainstorming and Think Tanks......Page 2248
Knowledge Trees......Page 2249
Triangle of Pairs......Page 2250
Utility Analysis......Page 2251
Measurement Theory......Page 2253
Rule and Frame-Based Systems......Page 2254
Fuzzy Expert Systems......Page 2256
Step 1— Fuzzification.......Page 2257
Step 3— Defuzzification.......Page 2258
Genetic Algorithms......Page 2259
Biological Neuron......Page 2261
Artificial Neural Network......Page 2262
Backpropagation......Page 2263
84.7 Problems in Calibration of AI Processing Meth.........Page 2264
References......Page 2266
85.2 Sampling......Page 2268
85.3 Quantization......Page 2271
Linear Errors......Page 2272
Nonlinear Errors......Page 2273
Aperture Errors......Page 2275
Noise......Page 2276
Dynamic Range......Page 2278
Flash......Page 2279
Multistage......Page 2280
Integrating......Page 2282
Sigma–Delta ADCs......Page 2284
Instrumentation......Page 2286
Further Information......Page 2288
The Single-Board Computer......Page 2290
Computer Bus Architectures......Page 2292
Industrial Computers......Page 2293
System Development......Page 2294
The VMEbus (IEEE P1014)......Page 2295
Priority Interrupt Bus.......Page 2296
Exception Signals.......Page 2297
86.4 Personal Computer Buses......Page 2298
System Configuration......Page 2299
PC/104......Page 2300
86.5 Peripherals......Page 2301
Serial Communications Adapter......Page 2302
Digital Input and Output......Page 2304
Analog Input......Page 2305
Serial Devices......Page 2307
86.6 Software for Instrumentation Systems......Page 2308
Working Directly with Peripherals......Page 2309
The Choice of Operating System......Page 2310
References......Page 2311
87.1 Introduction......Page 2313
Current-Based Base-Band Telemetry......Page 2316
Frequency Division Multiplexing......Page 2317
Subcarrier Modulation of Amplitude.......Page 2319
Subcarrier Modulation of Frequency.......Page 2320
Frequency Division Multiplexing Telemetry Standard.........Page 2321
Time Division Multiplexing......Page 2322
Analog Subcarrier Modulation Schemes for Time Divi.........Page 2324
Pulse Code Modulation Telemetry Standards.......Page 2325
Defining Terms......Page 2328
References......Page 2329
Ordinary Sensors vs. Networked Sensors......Page 2331
Why Use Networked Sensors?......Page 2332
Potential Problems with Networked Sensors......Page 2333
Addressing......Page 2334
Multiplexing......Page 2335
Error Control......Page 2336
ISO/OSI Network Reference Model......Page 2337
Physical Layer......Page 2338
88.3 Network Technologies......Page 2339
Seriplex......Page 2340
Interbus-S......Page 2341
HART......Page 2342
LonWorks......Page 2343
Bit Rate......Page 2344
Wireless Technologies......Page 2345
Integrating Sensors with Communications— IEEE P14.........Page 2346
References......Page 2347
Three Types of Problems......Page 2350
Radio Frequency Interference.......Page 2351
Grounding......Page 2352
Different Types of Grounds......Page 2353
Ground Impedances......Page 2354
Multipoint Grounds.......Page 2355
Digital Circuits.......Page 2356
Plane Wave Fields.......Page 2357
Why Shielding Fails......Page 2358
Gasketing and Screening.......Page 2359
Defining Terms......Page 2360
89.2 EMI and EMC Test Methods......Page 2361
Nature of Electric and Magnetic Fields......Page 2362
Measurement Antennas......Page 2363
Measurement Environment......Page 2365
Defining Terms......Page 2367
References......Page 2368
XIV Control......Page 21
90.1 Introduction......Page 2370
90.3 Fundamentals of Vision......Page 2371
90.5 Display Performance Considerations......Page 2372
Quantitative and Status Displays......Page 2374
CRT Performance......Page 2375
LCD Performance......Page 2376
90.10Electroluminescent Displays......Page 2377
Defining Terms......Page 2378
References......Page 2379
91.1 Introduction......Page 2381
Beam Generation with the Electron Gun......Page 2382
Electron Beam Focusing......Page 2383
91.4 CRT Addressing: Raster Scanning vs. Stroke......Page 2384
91.6 Color CRTs Using Shadow Masks......Page 2385
Field Sequential Color......Page 2386
91.8 Image Quality and Performance......Page 2387
91.9 CRT and Phosphor Lifetime......Page 2388
91.11 CRT Selection......Page 2389
91.12 Future Trends in CRT Technology......Page 2390
References......Page 2392
92.1 Introduction......Page 2395
92.2 Types of Liquid Crystal Materials......Page 2396
Dielectric Anisotropy......Page 2398
Refractive Index Anisotropy......Page 2399
Electro-Optical Characteristics......Page 2400
92.4 LCD Materials and Fabrication Processes......Page 2401
Color Filters......Page 2402
Transparent Electrodes......Page 2403
External Components......Page 2404
Twisted Nematic Effect......Page 2405
Electrically Controlled Birefringence (ECB)......Page 2407
92.6 Display Addressing......Page 2409
Active Matrix Addressing......Page 2410
Display Module Electronics......Page 2413
References......Page 2414
Development History and Present Status......Page 2417
dc and ac Plasma Pixels......Page 2420
General Attributes of Plasma Displays......Page 2422
Atomic Physics Processes......Page 2424
Discharge Physics for Plasma Pixels......Page 2427
Ion-Induced Secondary Electron Emission......Page 2430
Electrical Properties of dc Pixels......Page 2431
Electrical Properties of ac Pixels......Page 2432
93.4 Display Priming, Addressing, Refresh, and Gra.........Page 2435
Color Pixel Structures......Page 2437
VUV Photon Production and Utilization for Color Pl.........Page 2438
Phosphor Excitation and Emission for Color Plasma .........Page 2439
Color Plasma Display Lifetime Considerations......Page 2440
93.6 Inspection and Metrology......Page 2442
References......Page 2444
94.1 Introduction......Page 2448
Thin-Film Deposition Methods......Page 2449
Luminescence Mechanisms......Page 2450
Device Excitation......Page 2452
94.6 Time-Resolved Measurements......Page 2453
Charge Flow and Electric Field......Page 2454
Aging......Page 2456
94.8 Characterization of Matrix-Addressed Displays......Page 2457
Measurement of Drive Voltage and Current......Page 2458
Defining of Terms......Page 2459
References......Page 2460
95. Light-Emitting Diode Displays......Page 2462
References......Page 2471
96.1 Graphic Recorders......Page 2473
Translational Pen Recorders......Page 2476
Thermal Dot Array Recorders......Page 2477
Concluding Remarks......Page 2479
Defining Terms......Page 2481
Signals......Page 2482
Plug-In DAQ Boards......Page 2483
Analog Input Architecture......Page 2485
Basic Analog Specifications......Page 2486
Real-Time Sampling Techniques......Page 2487
Preventing Aliasing......Page 2488
Software Polling......Page 2489
Continuous Scanning......Page 2490
Interval Scanning......Page 2491
Further Information......Page 2493
Magnetic Recording......Page 2494
Magnetic Media......Page 2496
Magnetic Heads......Page 2498
Recording Process......Page 2501
Reproducing Process......Page 2502
Digital vs. Analog Recording......Page 2505
Recording Codes......Page 2507
Head/Medium Interface Tribology......Page 2508
CD-ROM......Page 2510
Magnetooptic Recording......Page 2512
References......Page 2514
97.2 Open and Closed Loops......Page 2516
Closed-Loop Responses......Page 2517
Proportional Control......Page 2518
PD Control......Page 2519
PID Controllers......Page 2520
Digital Controllers......Page 2521
Autotuning......Page 2522
References......Page 2523
98.1 Introduction......Page 2525
98.2 Cost Function......Page 2527
98.3 Calculus of Variations......Page 2529
98.4 Riccati Equation......Page 2531
98.5 State Feedback Matrix......Page 2534
References......Page 2537
99.2 Background......Page 2540
99.3 Hydraulic Actuator Modeling......Page 2541
99.4 EHA Actuator Modeling......Page 2543
Pump and Fluid......Page 2544
Flexible Hinge Joint Model......Page 2545
Stiff Hinge Joint Model......Page 2546
Aircraft Short Period Approximation......Page 2547
Quantitative Feedback Theory (QFT)......Page 2548
99.6 Conclusion......Page 2549
References......Page 2550
100.2 Fundamentals of Explosion Protection......Page 2552
100.3 Classification of Hazardous Areas......Page 2554
Class II, Division 1 Locations......Page 2555
100.4 Enclosure Types and Requirements......Page 2556
Intrinsic Safety......Page 2557
Making Field Devices Intrinsically Safe......Page 2559
Ignition Curves......Page 2560
Certification and Approval......Page 2563
Purging and Pressurization......Page 2565
References......Page 2567
101.1 Introduction......Page 2570
Chopping Current Amplifiers......Page 2571
Closed-Loop Control......Page 2572
Position Measurement......Page 2573
Pulse Width–Modulated Power Amplifier......Page 2574
Measuring the System Dynamics......Page 2575
References......Page 2578
TABLE A.1The SI Base Units......Page 2580
TABLE A.2The International Definitions of the S.........Page 2581
TABLE A.4SI Prefixesa......Page 2582
TABLE A.5Conversion Factors from English Measur.........Page 2583
References......Page 2587