McKnight’s physical geography: a landscape appreciation

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
CONTENTS
GEOSCIENCE ANIMATION LIBRARY
GEOSCIENCE VIDEO LIBRARY
PREFACE
ABOUT OUR SUSTAINABILITY INITIATIVES
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
BOOK AND MasteringGeography WALKTHROUGH
1 Introduction to Earth
	Geography and Science
		Studying the World Geographically
		The Process of Science
		Numbers and Measurement Systems
	Environmental Spheres and Earth Systems
		Earth’s Environmental Spheres
		Earth Systems
	Earth and the Solar System
		The Solar System
		The Size and Shape of Earth
	The Geographic Grid—Latitude and Longitude
		Latitude
		Longitude
		Locating Points on the Geographic Grid
	Earth–Sun Relations and the Seasons
		Earth Movements
		The Annual March of the Seasons
		Seasonal Transitions
		Significance of Seasonal Patterns
	Telling Time
		Standard Time
		International Date Line
		Daylight-Saving Time
2 Portraying Earth
	Maps and Globes
		Maps
	Map Scale
		Scale Types
		Large and Small Map Scales
	Map Projections and Properties
		Map Projections
		Map Properties
	Families of Map Projections
		Cylindrical Projections
		Planar Projections
		Conic Projections
		Pseudocylindrical Projections
	Conveying Information on Maps
		Map Essentials
		Isolines
		Portraying the Three-Dimensional Landscape
	GPS—The Global Positioning System
	Remote Sensing
		Aerial Photographs
		Visible Light and Infrared Sensing
	FOCUS: Using Remote Sensing Images to Study a Landscape
		Thermal Infrared Sensing
		Multispectral Remote Sensing
	Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
		Tools of the Geographer
3 Introduction to the Atmosphere
	Size and Composition of the Atmosphere
		Size of Earth\'s Atmosphere
		Development of Earth\'s Modern Atmosphere
		Composition of the Modern Atmosphere
		Permanent Gases
		Variable Gases
		Particulates (Aerosols)
	Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
		Thermal Layers
		Pressure
		Composition
	Human-Induced Atmospheric Change
		Depletion of the Ozone Layer
		Air Pollution
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The UV Index
		Energy Production and the Environment
	Weather and Climate
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Our Continuing Dependence on Fossil Fuels
		The Elements of Weather and Climate
		The Controls of Weather and Climate
		The Coriolis Effect
4 Insolation and Temperature
	The Impact of Temperature on the Landscape
	Energy, Heat, and Temperature
		Energy
		Temperature and Heat
		Measuring Temperature
	Solar Energy
		Electromagnetic Radiation
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Solar Power
		Insolation
	Basic Warming and Cooling Processes in the Atmosphere
		Radiation
		Absorption
		Reflection
		Scattering
		Transmission
		Conduction
		Convection
		Advection
		Adiabatic Cooling and Warming
		Latent Heat
	Earth\'s Solar Radiation Budget
		Long-Term Energy Balance
		Earth\'s Energy Budget
	Variations in Insolation by Latitude and Season
		Latitudinal and Seasonal Differences
	FOCUS: Monitoring Earth\'s Radiation Budget
		Latitudinal Radiation Balance
	Land and Water Temperature Contrasts
		Warming of Land and Water
		Cooling of Land and Water
		Implications
	Mechanisms of Global Energy Transfer
		Atmospheric Circulation
		Oceanic Circulation
	Vertical Temperature Patterns
		Environmental Lapse Rate
		Average Lapse Rate
		Temperature Inversions
	Global Temperature Patterns
		Prominent Controls of Temperature
		Seasonal Patterns
		Annual Temperature Range
		Measuring Earth\'s Surface Temperature by Satellite
	Climate Change and \"Global Warming\"
		Temperature Change During Twentieth Century
		Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations
		Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind
	The Impact of Pressure and Wind on the Landscape
	The Nature of Atmospheric Pressure
		Factors Influencing Atmospheric Pressure
		Mapping Pressure with Isobars
	The Nature of Wind
		Direction of Movement
		Wind Speed
	Cyclones and Anticyclones
	The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Wind Power
		Idealized Circulation Patterns
		Seven Components of the General Circulation
		Subtropical Highs
		Trade Winds
		Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
		The Westerlies
		Polar Highs
		Polar Easterlies
		Polar Front
		Vertical Patterns of the General Circulation
	Modifications of the General Circulation
		Seasonal Variations in Location
		Monsoons
	Localized Wind Systems
		Sea and Land Breezes
		Valley and Mountain Breezes
		Katabatic Winds
		Foehn and Chinook Winds
		Santa Ana Winds
	El Niño-Southern Oscillation
		Effects of El Niño
		Normal Pattern
		El Niño Pattern
		La Niña
		Causes of ENSO
		Teleconnections
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Forecasting El Niño
	Other Multiyear Atmospheric and Oceanic Cycles
		Pacific Decadal Oscillation
		The North Atlantic Oscillation and the Arctic Oscillation
6 Atmospheric Moisture
	The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape
	The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique
	The Hydrologic Cycle
		The Water Molecule
		Important Properties of Water
	Phase Changes of Water
		Latent Heat
		Importance of Latent Heat in the Atmosphere
	Water Vapor and Evaporation
		Evaporation and Rates of Evaporation
		Evapotranspiration
	Measures of Humidity
		Actual Water Vapor Content
		Relative Humidity
		Related Humidity Concepts
	Condensation
		The Condensation Process
	Adiabatic Processes
		Dry and Saturated Adiabatic Rates
		Significance of Adiabatic Temperature Changes
	Clouds
		Classifying Clouds
		Fog
		Dew
		Clouds and Climate Change
	Atmospheric Stability
		Buoyancy
		The Stability of Air
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Global Dimming
		Determining Atmospheric Stability
	Precipitation
		The Processes
		Forms of Precipitation
	Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation
		Convective Lifting
	FOCUS: GOES Weather Satellites
		Orographic Lifting
		Frontal Lifting
		Convergent Lifting
	Global Distribution of Precipitation
		Regions of High Annual Precipitation
		Regions of Low Annual Precipitation
		Seasonal Precipitation Patterns
		Precipitation Variability
	Acid Rain
		Sources of Acid Precipitation
7 Atmospheric Disturbances
	The Impact of Storms on the Landscape
	Air Masses
		Characteristics
		Origin
		Classification
		Movement and Modification
		North American Air Masses
	Fronts
		Cold Fronts
		Warm Fronts
		Stationary Fronts
		Occluded Fronts
		Air Masses, Fronts, and Major Atmospheric Disturbances
	Midlatitude Cyclones
		Characteristics
		Movements
		Life Cycle
		Weather Changes with the Passing of a Midlatitude Cyclone
	FOCUS: Conveyor Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones
		Occurrence and Distribution
	Midlatitude Anticyclones
		Characteristics
		Relationships of Cyclones and Anticyclones
	Easterly Waves
		Characteristics
		Origin
	Tropical Cyclones: Hurricanes
		Categories of Tropical Disturbances
		Characteristics
		Origin
		Movement
		Damage and Destruction
		Hurricanes and Climate Change
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Lessons of Hurricane Katrina
	Localized Severe Weather
		Thunderstorms
		Tornadoes
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The Devastating Tornadoes of 2011
		Waterspouts
		Severe Storm Watches and Warnings
	FOCUS: Wather Radar
8 Climate and Climate Change
	Climate Classification
		Early Classification Schemes
		The Köppen Climate Classification System
		Climographs
		World Distribution of Major Climate Types
	Tropical Humid Climates (Group A)
		Tropical Wet Climate (AF)
		Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw)
		Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)
	Dry Climates (Group B)
		Subtropical Desert Climate (BWh)
		Midlatitude Desert Climate (BWk)
	Mild Midlatitude Climates (Group C)
		Mediterranean Climate (Csa, Csb)
		Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa, Cwa, Cwb)
		Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb, Cfc)
	Severe Midlatitude Climates (Group D)
		Humid Continental Climate (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb)
		Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd)
	Polar and Highland Climates (Groups E and H)
		Tundra Climate (ET)
	FOCUS: Signs of Climate Change in the Arctic
		Ice Cap Climate (EF)
		Highland Climate (Group H)
		Global Patterns Idealized
	Global Climate Change
		Determining Climates of the Past
		Dendrochronology
		Oxygen Isotope Analysis
		Ice Cores
		Pollen Analysis
		Urban Heat Islands
	Causes of Long-Term Climate Change
		Atmospheric Aerosols
		Fluctuations in Solar Output
		Variations in Earth–Sun Relations
		Greenhouse Gases Concentration
		Feedback Mechanisms
		The Roles of the Ocean
	Anthropogenic Climate Change
		Evidence of Current Climate Change
		Natural or Anthropogenic Climate Change?
		Using Models to Predict Future Climate
		Projections of Future Climate
		Addressing Climate Change
		Mitigating and Adapting
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
9 The Hydrosphere
	The Hydrologic Cycle
		Surface-to-Air Water Movement
		Air-to-Surface Water Movement
		Movement On and Beneath Earth\'s Surface
		Residence Times
		Energy Transfer in the Hydrologic Cycle
	The Oceans
		How Many Oceans?
		Characteristics of Ocean Waters
	Movement of Ocean Waters
		Tides
		Ocean Currents
		Waves
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The Great Pacific Garbage Patch
	Permanent Ice—The Cryosphere
		Permafrost
	Surface Waters
		Lakes
		Wetlands
		Rivers and Streams
	Groundwater
		Movement and Storage of Underground Water
		Zone of Aeration
		Zone of Saturation
		Zone of Confined Water
		Waterless Zone
		Groundwater Mining
	FOCUS: Monitoring Groundwater Resources from Space
10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere
	The Impact of Plants and Animals on the Landscape
	The Geographic Approach to the Study of Organisms
		Biogeography
		The Search for a Meaningful Classification Scheme
	Biogeochemical Cycles
		The Flow of Energy
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Biofuels
		The Hydrologic Cycle
		The Carbon Cycle
		The Oxygen Cycle
		The Nitrogen Cycle
		Mineral Cycles
	Food Chains
		Food Pyramids
		Pollutants in the Food Chain
	Biological Factors and Natural Distributions
		Evolutionary Development
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
		Migration and Dispersal
		Reproductive Success
		Population Die-off and Extinction
		Plant Succession
	Environmental Factors
		The Influence of Climate
	FOCUS: Bark Beetle Killing Forests in Western North America
		Edaphic Influences
		Topographic Influences
		Wildfire
		Environmental Correlations: The Example of Selva
11 Terrestrial Flora and Fauna
	Ecosystems and Biomes
		Ecosystem: A Concept for All Scales
		Biome: A Scale for All Biogeographers
	Terrestrial Flora
		Characteristics of Plants
		Floristic Terminology
		Environmental Adaptations
		Competition and the Inevitability of Change
		Spatial Associations of Plants
		Vertical Zonation
		Local Variations
	Terrestrial Fauna
		Characteristics of Animals
		Kinds of Animals
		Environmental Adaptations
	FOCUS: Changing Climate Affects Bird Populations
		Competition among Animals
		Cooperation among Animals
	Zoogeographic Regions
	The Major Biomes
		Tropical Rainforest
		Tropical Deciduous Forest
		Tropical Scrub
		Tropical Savanna
		Desert
		Mediterranean Woodland and Shrub
		Midlatitude Grassland
		Midlatitude Deciduous Forest
		Boreal Forest
		Tundra
	Human Modification of Natural Distribution Patterns
		Physical Removal of Organisms
		Habitat Modification
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Rainforest Loss in Brazil
		Introduction of Exotic Species
12 Soils
	Soil and Regolith
		From Regolith to Soil
		Soil as a Component of the Landscape
	Soil-Forming Factors
		The Geologic Factor
		The Climatic Factor
		The Topographic Factor
		The Biological Factor
		The Time Factor
	Soil Components
		Inorganic Materials
		Organic Matter
		Soil Air
		Soil Water
	Soil Properties
		Color
		Texture
		Structure
	Soil Chemistry
		Colloids
		Cation Exchange
		Acidity/Alkalinity
	Soil Profiles
		Soil Horizons
	Pedogenic Regimes
		Laterization
		Podzolization
		Gleization
		Calcification
		Salinization
		Climate and Pedogenic Regimes
	Soil Classification
		The Soil Taxonomy
		The Mapping Question
	Global Distribution of Major Soils
		Entisols (Very Little Profile Development)
	FOCUS: Using Soil Properties to Decipher Past Environmental Changes
		Inceptisols (Few Diagnostic Features)
		Andisols (Volcanic Ash Soils)
		Gelisols (Cold Soils with Permafrost)
		Histosols (Organic Soils on Very Wet Sites)
		Aridisols (Soils of Dry Climates)
		Vertisols (Swelling and Cracking Clays)
		Mollisols (Dark, Soft Soils of Grasslands)
		Alfisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, High Base Status)
		Ultisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, Low Base Status)
		Spodosols (Soils of Cool, Forested Zones)
		Oxisols (Highly Weathered and Leached)
		Distribution of Soils in the United States
13 Introduction to Landform Study
	The Structure of Earth
		Earth\'s Hot Interior
		The Crust
		The Mantle
		The Inner and Outer Cores
		Plate Tectonics and the Structure of Earth
	The Composition of Earth
		Minerals
		Rocks
		Igneous Rocks
		Sedimentary Rocks
		Metamorphic Rocks
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Fracking for Natural Gas
		The Rock Cycle
		Continental and Ocean Floor Rocks
		Isostasy
	The Study of Landforms
	Some Critical Concepts
		Internal and External Geomorphic Processes
		Uniformitarianism
		Geologic Time
	Scale and Pattern
		An Example of Scale
		Pattern and Process in Geomorphology
14 The Internal Processes
	The Impact of Internal Processes on the Landscape
	From Rigid Earth to Plate Tectonics
		Wegener\'s Continental Drift
	The Theory of Plate Tectonics
		The Evidence
		Seafloor Spreading
		Plate Tectonic Theory
	Plate Boundaries
		Divergent Boundaries
		Convergent Boundaries
		Transform Boundaries
		Plate Boundaries Over Geologic Time
		The Pacific Ring of Fire
	Additions to Plate Tectonic Theory
		Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes
		Accreted Terranes
		Remaining Questions
	Volcanism
		Volcano Distribution
		Magma Chemistry and Styles of Eruption
		Lava Flows
		Volcanic Peaks
	Volcanic Hazards
		Volcanic Gases
		Lava Flows
		Eruption Column and Ash Fall
		Pyroclastic Flows
		Volcanic Mudflows (Lahars)
		Monitoring Volcanoes
	Intrusive Igneous Features
		Plutons
	Folding
		The Process of Folding
		Types of Folds
		Topographic Features Associated with Folding
	Faulting
		Types of Faults
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The 2010 Haiti Earthquake
		Landforms Associated with Normal Faulting
		Landforms Associated with Strike-Slip Faulting
	Earthquakes
		Seismic Waves
		Earthquake Magnitude
		Shaking Intensity
		Earthquake Hazards
	Complexities of the Internal Processes—Example of the Northern Rockies
	FOCUS: Earthquake Prediction
15 Preliminaries to Erosion: Weathering and Mass Wasting
	Denudation
		The Impact of Weathering and Mass Wasting on the Landscape
	Weathering and Rock Openings
		Types of Rock Openings
		The Importance of Jointing
	Weathering Agents
		Mechanical Weathering
		Chemical Weathering
		Biological Weathering
		Differential Weathering
		Climate and Weathering
	Mass Wasting
		Factors Influencing Mass Wasting
		Fall
		Slide
		Flow
		Creep
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The La Conchita Landslides
16 Fluvial Processes
	The Impact of Fluvial Processes on the Landscape
	Streams and Stream Systems
		Streamflow and Overland Flow
		Valleys and Interfluves
		Drainage Basins
		Stream Orders
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Hydropower
	Fluvial Erosion and Deposition
		Erosion by Overland Flow
		Erosion by Streamflow
		Transportation
		Deposition
		Perennial and Intermittent Streams
		Floods as Agents of Erosion and Deposition
	Stream Channels
		Channel Flow
		Stream Channel Patterns
	Structural Relationships
		Consequent and Subsequent Streams
		Stream Drainage Patterns
	The Shaping and Reshaping of Valleys
		Valley Deepening
		Valley Widening
		Valley Lengthening
		Deposition in Valleys
	Floodplains
		Floodplain Landforms
		Modifying Rivers for Flood Control
		Flood Control on the Mississippi River
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The Changing Mississippi River Delta
	Stream Rejuvenation
	Theories of Landform Development
		Davis\'s Geomorphic Cycle
		Penck\'s Theory of Crustal Change and Slope Development
		Equilibrium Theory
17 Karst and Hydrothermal Processes
	The Impact of Solution Processes on the Landscape
	Solution and Precipitation
	Caverns and Related Features
		Speleothems
	Karst Topography
		Karst Landforms
	Hydrothermal Features
		Hot Springs
		Geysers
		Fumaroles
		Hydrothermal Features in Yellowstone
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Geothermal Energy
18 The Topography of Arid Lands
	A Specialized Environment
		Special Conditions in Deserts
	Running Water in Waterless Regions
		Surface Water in the Desert
		Fluvial Erosion in Arid Lands
		Fluvial Deposition in Arid Lands
		Climate Change and Deserts
	The Work of the Wind
		Aeolian Erosion
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Desertification
		Aeolian Transportation
		Aeolian Deposition
		Aeolian Processes in Nondesert Regions
	Characteristic Desert Landscape Surfaces
		Common Desert Surfaces
		Erg—A Sea of Sand
		Reg—Stony Deserts
		Hamada—Barren Bedrock
		Two Representative Desert Landform Assemblages
	Basin-and-Range Landforms
		The Ranges
		The Piedmont Zone
		The Basins
		Death Valley: A Remarkable Example of Basin-and-Range Terrain
	Mesa-and-Scarp Terrain
		Structure of Mesa-and-Scarp Landforms
		Erosion of Escarpment Edge
		Arches and Natural Bridges
		Badlands
19 Glacial Modification of Terrain
	The Impact of Glaciers on the Landscape
	Types of Glaciers
		Mountain Glaciers
		Continental Ice Sheets
	Glaciations Past and Present
		Pleistocene Glaciation
		Indirect Effects of Pleistocene Glaciations
		Contemporary Glaciation
	Glacier Formation and Movement
		Changing Snow to Ice
		Glacier Movement
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Disintegration of Antarctic Ice Shelves
		Glacier Flow versus Glacier Advance
	The Effects of Glaciers
		Erosion by Glaciers
		Transportation by Glaciers
		Deposition by Glaciers
	Continental Ice Sheets
		Development and Flow
		Erosion by Ice Sheets
		Deposition by Ice Sheets
		Glaciofluvial Features
	FOCUS: Shrinking Glaciers
	Mountain Glaciers
		Development and Flow of Mountain Glaciers
		Erosion by Mountain Glaciers
		Deposition by Mountain Glaciers
	The Periglacial Environment
		Patterned Ground
		Proglacial Lakes
	Causes of the Pleistocene Glaciations
		Climate Factors and the Pleistocene
		Are We Still in an Ice Age?
20 Coastal Processes and Terrain
	The Impact of Waves and Currents on the Landscape
	Coastal Processes
		The Role of Wind in Coastal Processes
		Coastlines of Oceans and Lakes
	Waves
		Wave Motion
		Wave Refraction
		Tsunami
	Important Shoreline-Shaping Processes
		Tides
		Changes in Sea Level and Lake Level
	PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: The 2011 Japan Earthquake and Tsunami
	ENERGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: Tidal Power
		Ice Push
		Organic Secretions
		Stream Outflow
		Coastal Sediment Transport
	Coastal Depositional Landforms
		Sediment Budget of Depositional Landforms
		Beaches
		Spits
		Barrier Islands
		Human Alteration of Coastal Sediment Budgets
	Shorelines of Submergence and Emergence
		Coastal Submergence
		Coastal Emergence
	Coral Reef Coasts
		Coral Polyps
		Coral Reefs
	FOCUS: Imperiled Coral Reefs
LEARNING CHECK ANSWERS
APPENDIX I: The International System of Units (SI)
APPENDIX II: U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps
APPENDIX III: Meteorological Tables
APPENDIX IV: The Weather Station Model
APPENDIX V: Köppen Climate Classification
APPENDIX VI: Biological Taxonomy
APPENDIX VII: The Soil Taxonomy
GLOSSARY
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
PHOTO
ILLUSTRATION AND TEXT CREDITS
INDEX
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z