Materials science and engineering

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Dedication......Page 9
Preface......Page 11
Contents......Page 17
List of Symbols......Page 25
1. Introduction......Page 29
1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 30
1.2 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING......Page 31
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS......Page 33
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Carbonated Beverage Containers......Page 38
1.5 ADVANCED MATERIALS......Page 39
1.6 MODERN MATERIALS’ NEEDS......Page 41
1.7 PROCESSING/STRUCTURE/PROPERTIES/ PERFORMANCE CORRELATIONS......Page 42
SUMMARY......Page 44
QUESTION......Page 45
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding......Page 46
2.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS......Page 47
2.3 ELECTRONS IN ATOMS......Page 48
2.4 THE PERIODIC TABLE......Page 54
2.5 BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES......Page 56
2.6 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS......Page 58
2.7 SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS BONDING......Page 62
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Water (Its Volume Expansion Upon Freezing)......Page 65
SUMMARY......Page 66
Equation Summary......Page 67
REFERENCES......Page 68
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 69
3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids......Page 72
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 73
3.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS......Page 74
3.4 METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES......Page 75
3.5 DENSITY COMPUTATIONS......Page 79
3.7 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS......Page 80
MATERIAL OF IMPORTANCE: Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation)......Page 81
3.8 POINT COORDINATES......Page 83
3.9 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS......Page 85
3.10 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES......Page 92
3.11 LINEAR AND PLANAR DENSITIES......Page 96
3.12 CLOSE-PACKED CRYSTAL STRUCTURES......Page 98
3.14 POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS......Page 100
3.15 ANISOTROPY......Page 101
3.16 X-RAY DIFFRACTION: DETERMINATION OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES......Page 102
3.17 NONCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS......Page 107
SUMMARY......Page 108
Equation Summary......Page 110
REFERENCES......Page 111
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 112
4. Imperfections in Solids......Page 118
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 119
4.2 VACANCIES AND SELF-INTERSTITIALS......Page 120
4.3 IMPURITIES IN SOLIDS......Page 121
4.4 SPECIFICATION OF COMPOSITION......Page 123
4.5 DISLOCATIONS—LINEAR DEFECTS......Page 127
4.6 INTERFACIAL DEFECTS......Page 130
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Catalysts (and Surface Defects)......Page 133
4.8 ATOMIC VIBRATIONS......Page 134
4.9 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MICROSCOPY......Page 135
4.10 MICROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES......Page 136
4.11 GRAIN SIZE DETERMINATION......Page 141
SUMMARY......Page 142
Equation Summary......Page 144
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 145
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 146
5. Diffusion......Page 150
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 151
5.2 DIFFUSION MECHANISMS......Page 153
5.3 STEADY-STATE DIFFUSION......Page 154
5.4 NONSTEADY-STATE DIFFUSION......Page 156
5.5 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DIFFUSION......Page 160
5.6 DIFFUSION IN SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS......Page 165
Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects......Page 168
SUMMARY......Page 170
Equation Summary......Page 171
REFERENCES......Page 172
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 173
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 176
6. Mechanical Properties of Metals......Page 178
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 179
6.2 CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN......Page 180
6.3 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR......Page 184
6.4 ANELASTICITY......Page 187
6.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS......Page 188
6.6 TENSILE PROPERTIES......Page 190
6.7 TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN......Page 198
6.9 COMPRESSIVE, SHEAR, AND TORSIONAL DEFORMATIONS......Page 201
6.10 HARDNESS......Page 202
6.11 VARIABILITY OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES......Page 208
6.12 DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS......Page 210
SUMMARY......Page 212
Equation Summary......Page 214
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 215
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 216
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 223
7. Dislocations andStrengthening Mechanisms......Page 225
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 226
7.2 BASIC CONCEPTS......Page 227
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISLOCATIONS......Page 229
7.4 SLIP SYSTEMS......Page 230
7.5 SLIP IN SINGLE CRYSTALS......Page 232
7.6 PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS......Page 236
7.7 DEFORMATION BY TWINNING......Page 238
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals......Page 239
7.8 STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION......Page 240
7.9 SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING......Page 241
7.10 STRAIN HARDENING......Page 243
Recovery, Recryst allization, and Grain Growth......Page 246
7.12 RECRYSTALLIZATION......Page 247
7.13 GRAIN GROWTH......Page 252
SUMMARY......Page 253
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 256
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 257
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 261
8. Failure......Page 262
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 263
8.3 DUCTILE FRACTURE......Page 264
8.4 BRITTLE FRACTURE......Page 267
8.5 PRINCIPLES OF FRACTURE MECHANICS......Page 270
8.6 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING......Page 278
8.7 CYCLIC STRESSES......Page 283
8.8 THE S-N CURVE
......Page 285
8.9 CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGATION......Page 287
8.10 FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE......Page 290
8.11 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS......Page 292
8.12 GENERALIZED CREEP BEHAVIOR......Page 293
8.13 STRESS AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS......Page 294
8.14 DATA EXTRAPOLATION METHODS......Page 296
8.15 ALLOYS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE USE......Page 297
SUMMARY......Page 298
Equation Summary......Page 301
Important Terms and Concepts......Page 302
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 303
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 307
9. Phase Diagrams......Page 309
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 310
9.2 SOLUBILITY LIMIT......Page 311
9.4 MICROSTRUCTURE......Page 312
9.5 PHASE EQUILIBRIA......Page 313
9.6 ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS......Page 314
9.7 BINARY ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEMS......Page 315
9.8 INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS......Page 317
9.9 DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS......Page 322
9.10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS......Page 325
9.11 BINARY EUTECTIC SYSTEMS......Page 326
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Lead-Free Solders......Page 332
9.12 DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN EUTECTIC ALLOYS......Page 333
9.13 EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS HAVING INTERMEDIATE PHASES OR COMPOUNDS......Page 339
9.14 EUTECTOID AND PERITECTIC REACTIONS......Page 341
9.15 CONGRUENT PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS......Page 343
9.17 THE GIBBS PHASE RULE......Page 344
9.18 THE IRON–IRON CARBIDE (Fe–Fe3C) PHASE DIAGRAM......Page 347
9.19 DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN IRON–CARBON ALLOYS......Page 350
9.20 THE INFLUENCE OF OTHER ALLOYING ELEMENTS......Page 358
SUMMARY......Page 359
Equation Summary......Page 361
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 362
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 363
10. Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties......Page 370
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 371
10.3 THE KINETICS OF PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS......Page 372
10.4 METASTABLE VERSUS EQUILIBRIUM STATES......Page 383
10.5 ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS......Page 384
10.6 CONTINUOUS COOLING TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS......Page 395
10.7 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF IRON–CARBON ALLOYS......Page 398
10.8 TEMPERED MARTENSITE......Page 403
10.9 REVIEW OF PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR IRON–CARBON ALLOYS......Page 406
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Shape-Memory Alloys......Page 407
SUMMARY......Page 409
Equation Summary......Page 411
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 412
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 413
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 418
11. Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys......Page 419
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 420
11.2 FERROUS ALLOYS......Page 421
11.3 NONFERROUS ALLOYS......Page 434
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins......Page 444
11.4 FORMING OPERATIONS......Page 445
11.5 CASTING......Page 447
11.6 MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES......Page 448
11.7 ANNEALING PROCESSES......Page 450
11.8 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS......Page 453
11.9 PRECIPITATION HARDENING......Page 464
SUMMARY......Page 470
Important Terms and Concepts......Page 472
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 475
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 477
12. Structures and Properties of Ceramics......Page 479
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 480
12.2 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES......Page 481
12.3 SILICATE CERAMICS......Page 492
12.4 CARBON......Page 496
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Carbon Nanotubes......Page 499
12.5 IMPERFECTIONS IN CERAMICS......Page 500
12.7 CERAMIC PHASE DIAGRAMS......Page 504
12.8 BRITTLE FRACTURE OF CERAMICS......Page 508
12.9 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR......Page 513
12.10 MECHANISMS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION......Page 515
12.11 MISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 517
SUMMARY......Page 519
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 522
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 523
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 528
13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics......Page 529
13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 530
13.3 GLASS-CERAMICS......Page 531
13.5 REFRACTORIES......Page 533
13.6 ABRASIVES......Page 535
13.7 CEMENTS......Page 536
13.8 ADVANCED CERAMICS......Page 537
Fabrication and Processing of Ceramics......Page 540
13.9 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF GLASSES AND GLASS-CERAMICS......Page 541
13.10 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF CLAY PRODUCTS......Page 546
13.11 POWDER PRESSING......Page 551
13.12 TAPE CASTING......Page 553
SUMMARY......Page 554
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 556
Important Terms and Concepts......Page 557
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 558
DESIGN PROBLEM......Page 559
14. Polymer Structures......Page 560
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 561
14.2 HYDROCARBON MOLECULES......Page 562
14.3 POLYMER MOLECULES......Page 563
14.4 THE CHEMISTRY OF POLYMER MOLECULES......Page 565
14.5 MOLECULAR WEIGHT......Page 569
14.6 MOLECULAR SHAPE......Page 572
14.7 MOLECULAR STRUCTURE......Page 573
14.8 MOLECULAR CONFIGURATIONS......Page 575
14.9 THERMOPLASTIC AND THERMOSETTING POLYMERS......Page 578
14.10 COPOLYMERS......Page 579
14.11 POLYMER CRYSTALLINITY......Page 580
14.12 POLYMER CRYSTALS......Page 584
14.13 DEFECTS IN POLYMERS......Page 586
14.14 DIFFUSION IN POLYMERIC MATERIALS......Page 587
SUMMARY......Page 589
Equation Summary......Page 591
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 592
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 593
15. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers......Page 597
15.2 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR......Page 598
15.3 MACROSCOPIC DEFORMATION......Page 601
15.4 VISCOELASTIC DEFORMATION......Page 602
15.5 FRACTURE OF POLYMERS......Page 606
15.6 MISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS......Page 608
15.7 DEFORMATION OF SEMICRYSTALLINE POLYMERS......Page 609
15.8 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SEMICRYSTALLINE POLYMERS......Page 610
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films......Page 615
15.9 DEFORMATION OF ELASTOMERS......Page 616
15.10 CRYSTALLIZATION......Page 618
15.13 MELTING AND GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURES......Page 620
15.14 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MELTING AND GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURES......Page 622
15.15 PLASTICS......Page 624
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Phenolic Billiard Balls......Page 626
15.16 ELASTOMERS......Page 627
15.18 MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS......Page 629
15.19 ADVANCED POLYMERIC MATERIALS......Page 631
15.20 POLYMERIZATION......Page 635
15.21 POLYMER ADDITIVES......Page 638
15.22 FORMING TECHNIQUES FOR PLASTICS......Page 639
15.24 FABRICATION OF FIBERS AND FILMS......Page 642
SUMMARY......Page 644
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 647
REFERENCES......Page 648
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 649
DESIGN QUESTIONS......Page 653
16. Composites......Page 654
16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 655
Particle-Reinforced Composites......Page 657
16.2 LARGE-PARTICLE COMPOSITES......Page 658
16.4 INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH......Page 662
16.5 INFLUENCE OF FIBER ORIENTATION AND CONCENTRATION......Page 664
16.6 THE FIBER PHASE......Page 673
16.7 THE MATRIX PHASE......Page 674
16.8 POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES......Page 675
16.9 METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITES......Page 681
16.10 CERAMIC-MATRIX COMPOSITES......Page 683
16.11 CARBON–CARBON COMPOSITES......Page 684
16.13 PROCESSING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES......Page 685
16.14 LAMINAR COMPOSITES......Page 688
16.15 SANDWICH PANELS......Page 689
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Nanocomposites in Tennis Balls......Page 690
SUMMARY......Page 691
Equation Summary......Page 694
REFERENCES......Page 695
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 696
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 699
17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials......Page 701
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 702
17.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 703
17.3 CORROSION RATES......Page 710
17.4 PREDICTION OF CORROSION RATES......Page 711
17.5 PASSIVITY......Page 718
17.7 FORMS OF CORROSION......Page 720
17.8 CORROSION ENVIRONMENTS......Page 728
17.9 CORROSION PREVENTION......Page 729
17.10 OXIDATION......Page 731
Corrosion of Ceramic Materials......Page 734
17.11 SWELLING AND DISSOLUTION......Page 735
17.12 BOND RUPTURE......Page 737
17.13 WEATHERING......Page 738
SUMMARY......Page 739
Equation Summary......Page 741
Important Terms and Concepts......Page 742
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 743
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 746
18. Electrical Properties......Page 747
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 748
18.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY......Page 749
18.5 ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES IN SOLIDS......Page 750
18.6 CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND AND ATOMIC BONDING MODELS......Page 753
18.7 ELECTRON MOBILITY......Page 755
18.8 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF METALS......Page 756
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Aluminum Electrical Wires......Page 759
18.10 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION......Page 761
18.11 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION......Page 764
18.12 THE TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF CARRIER CONCENTRATION......Page 768
18.13 FACTORS THAT AFFECT CARRIER MOBILITY......Page 770
18.14 THE HALL EFFECT......Page 774
18.15 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES......Page 776
Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers......Page 782
18.16 CONDUCTION IN IONIC MATERIALS......Page 783
18.17 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS......Page 784
18.18 CAPACITANCE......Page 785
18.19 FIELD VECTORS AND POLARIZATION......Page 787
18.20 TYPES OF POLARIZATION......Page 790
18.21 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT......Page 792
Other ElectricalCharacteristics of Materials......Page 793
18.24 FERROELECTRICITY......Page 794
SUMMARY......Page 795
Equation Summary......Page 798
Processing /Structure /Properties /Performance Summary......Page 800
Important Terms and Concepts......Page 801
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 802
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 807
19. Thermal Properties......Page 809
19.2 HEAT CAPACITY......Page 810
19.3 THERMAL EXPANSION......Page 813
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys......Page 816
19.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY......Page 817
19.5 THERMAL STRESSES......Page 820
SUMMARY......Page 822
Equation Summary......Page 823
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 824
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 826
20. Magnetic Properties......Page 828
20.2 BASIC CONCEPTS......Page 829
20.3 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM......Page 833
20.4 FERROMAGNETISM......Page 835
20.5 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM AND FERRIMAGNETISM......Page 837
20.6 THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR......Page 841
20.7 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS......Page 842
20.8 MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY......Page 846
20.9 SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS......Page 847
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: An Iron–Silicon Alloy That Is Used in Transformer Cores......Page 849
20.10 HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS......Page 850
20.11 MAGNETIC STORAGE......Page 853
20.12 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY......Page 856
SUMMARY......Page 860
Equation Summary......Page 862
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 863
DESIGN PROBLEMS......Page 867
21. Optical Properties......Page 868
21.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION......Page 869
21.3 LIGHT INTERACTIONS WITH SOLIDS......Page 871
21.4 ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC INTERACTIONS......Page 872
Optical Properties of Metals......Page 873
21.5 REFRACTION......Page 874
21.6 REFLECTION......Page 876
21.7 ABSORPTION......Page 877
21.8 TRANSMISSION......Page 880
21.9 COLOR......Page 881
21.10 OPACITY AND TRANSLUCENCY IN INSULATORS......Page 882
21.11 LUMINESCENCE......Page 883
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 884
21.13 LASERS......Page 886
21.14 OPTICAL FIBERS IN COMMUNICATIONS......Page 891
SUMMARY......Page 893
Equation Summary......Page 896
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 897
DESIGN PROBLEM......Page 899
22. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering......Page 900
Economic Considerations......Page 901
22.3 MATERIALS......Page 902
Environmental and Societ alConsiderations......Page 903
22.5 RECYCLING ISSUES IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING......Page 906
MATERIALS OF IMPORTANCE: Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics......Page 909
REFERENCES......Page 912
DESIGN QUESTION......Page 913
Appendix A: The International System of Units (SI)......Page 915
B.1 Density......Page 917
B.2 Modulus of Elasticity......Page 920
B.3 Poisson’s Ratio......Page 924
B.4 Strength and Ductility......Page 925
B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness......Page 930
B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion......Page 931
B.7 Thermal Conductivity......Page 935
B.8 Specific Heat......Page 938
B.9 Electrical Resistivity......Page 940
B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions......Page 943
Appendix C: Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials......Page 945
Appendix D: Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers......Page 950
Appendix E: Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials......Page 954
Glossary......Page 955
Answers to Selected Problems......Page 970
Index......Page 976