Materials in Sports Equipment. Volume 1

material_sports-2003......Page 1
Materials in sports equipment......Page 16
Contents......Page 18
Preface......Page 23
Contributors......Page 25
1.2 Materials, processing and design in the pole vault......Page 28
1.3 The relationship between materials technology and design – fencing masks......Page 31
1.4 Overview of ‘materials in sport’......Page 32
1.5 References......Page 33
2.2.1 Introduction......Page 35
2.2.2 Material selection......Page 36
2.2.3 The kinematics and biomechanics of head impact......Page 37
2.2.4 Modelling of impacts......Page 38
Material parameters......Page 39
Model geometry......Page 40
2.2.6 Falling headform impact test......Page 41
2.2.7 Maximum force or deceleration......Page 43
2.2.8 Comparison of FEA predictions with experimental data......Page 45
2.3 Soccer shin and ankle protectors......Page 46
Bruising......Page 47
2.3.2 Product test rigs......Page 48
2.3.3 Effective mass and effective impact energy......Page 49
2.3.5 EN standard......Page 50
2.3.7 Ankle protector materials and tests......Page 52
2.3.8 FEA of protector deformation and load distribution......Page 53
2.3.9 The future......Page 54
2.4.1 The need for helmets......Page 56
Rotational acceleration of the brain......Page 57
2.4.3 Cycle helmet standards......Page 58
2.4.4 Materials and process selection......Page 59
A foam with constant collapse stress, and zero load spreading......Page 61
Helmet design......Page 62
Variable collapse stress and load spreading (FEA)......Page 63
2.4.8 Cycle helmet effectiveness......Page 66
2.4.9 The future......Page 67
2.6 Summary......Page 69
2.8 References......Page 70
3.2 Why do we have a diversity of sports surfaces?......Page 73
3.3.1 Measurement of resilience......Page 74
3.3.2 Surface torsion......Page 77
3.4.1 Football......Page 78
3.4.2 Modified turf – DD Grassmaster and Astrograss systems......Page 80
3.4.3 Artificial turf......Page 82
3.4.4 Rugby......Page 84
3.4.5 Hockey......Page 86
3.4.6 Athletics......Page 87
3.6 References......Page 89
4.1.1 Sources of information......Page 91
4.2 Shoe construction......Page 92
Puma’s thermoplastic honeycomb in the heel region......Page 94
4.2.2 Outsole materials and design......Page 95
Pronation control for rearfoot runners......Page 96
4.2.5 Midsole foams......Page 98
Processing and microstructure of EVA foam......Page 99
Alternative foams......Page 101
Foam grades......Page 102
4.3.2 Foot-strike forces......Page 103
4.4.1 Isothermal compression of the air in the foam cells......Page 106
Uniaxial compressive response of EVA foam......Page 107
Micromechanics of the polymer contribution to the foam compression......Page 109
Considering the stress field in the heelpad and the foam midsole......Page 110
4.4.4 Foam flexure and heel stability......Page 112
The effect of the shoe on running style......Page 114
4.5.2 Foam durability......Page 116
ASTM tests for heel performance......Page 117
Foam permeability......Page 118
4.5.4 Modelling gas loss from EVA foam under creep loading......Page 119
4.5.6 Foam temperature rise in running......Page 121
4.6 Discussion......Page 122
4.9 References......Page 123
5.1 Introduction......Page 126
5.2 Basic aerodynamic principles......Page 127
5.3 Cricket......Page 128
5.4 Baseball......Page 131
5.5 Tennis......Page 133
5.6 Golf......Page 136
5.7 Soccer/volleyball......Page 139
5.8 Boomerang......Page 141
5.9 Discus......Page 145
5.10 Javelin......Page 147
5.11 Future trends......Page 149
5.12 References......Page 150
6.1 Introduction......Page 153
6.2 Oversized golf drivers......Page 154
6.3 Role of the face......Page 157
6.4 Frequency spectrum testing A......Page 160
6.5 Test variables......Page 161
6.6 CoR–frequency relationship......Page 167
6.7 Variability within a single club type......Page 169
6.8 Head design criteria......Page 170
6.9.2 Cast components......Page 177
6.9.3 Forged components......Page 180
6.10 Conclusions, further work and design trends......Page 181
6.12 References......Page 182
7.1 Introduction......Page 184
7.2.1 The role of friction......Page 185
7.2.2 Wear of sports surfaces......Page 186
7.2.3 Surface engineering......Page 187
7.3.1 Painting/organic coating......Page 189
7.3.2 Anodising......Page 190
Increasing painting adhesion......Page 191
7.3.3 Thermal spraying......Page 192
7.3.4 Physical vapour deposition (PVD)......Page 194
Shot peening......Page 197
Blasting......Page 198
Carburising......Page 199
Nitriding......Page 200
Plasma nitriding of titanium alloys......Page 201
7.4.3 Thermal oxidation of titanium alloys......Page 203
Laser surface alloying......Page 206
Role of coefficient of sliding friction......Page 207
Low-friction golf club face......Page 208
High-friction golf club face......Page 210
The technical barriers – poor tribological behaviour......Page 211
Thermal oxidation (TO) treatment of racing engine components......Page 212
Duplex treatment of titanium gears......Page 213
7.7 Acknowledgements......Page 216
7.8 References......Page 217
8.1 Introduction......Page 220
8.3 The function of strings in a racquet......Page 221
8.4 Frame stiffness......Page 223
8.5 Laboratory testing of tennis strings......Page 224
8.6 Quasi-static stretch tests......Page 225
8.7 Energy loss in a string......Page 227
8.8 Perception of string properties......Page 228
8.9 Measurements of tension loss and dynamic stiffness......Page 229
8.10 Tension loss results......Page 231
8.11 Impact dynamics......Page 235
8.12 Coefficient of friction......Page 238
8.13 Discussion......Page 240
8.14 Oblique impacts on tennis strings......Page 241
8.15 Conclusions......Page 242
8.17 Further reading and other resources......Page 244
9.2.1 Basic material history......Page 246
Dunlop Maxply......Page 248
Prince Oversize......Page 249
PDP Staff......Page 250
Head Twin Tube......Page 251
9.3 Frame materials......Page 253
9.3.1 Wood......Page 254
9.3.2 Metals......Page 255
Glass fibres......Page 256
Thermosets......Page 257
Thermoplastics......Page 259
9.4.2 The grip......Page 261
9.4.3 The grommets......Page 262
Lay-up......Page 263
Finishing......Page 265
Non-destructive tests......Page 266
Destructive tests......Page 267
9.6.1 Power......Page 268
9.6.4 Mechanical failure......Page 269
9.6.5 Designing for consumer groups......Page 270
9.8 References......Page 271
10.2 Wooden bikes!......Page 273
10.2.2 Antelope skin?......Page 274
10.3 Material properties......Page 275
10.3.2 The lightweight paradox......Page 276
10.3.3 How strong is strong enough?......Page 277
10.4.1 Stress concentrations......Page 278
10.4.3 Scratches and similar......Page 279
Manufacturing cost......Page 280
A simple design calculation......Page 281
A partial solution......Page 282
10.5.2 A handlebar failure......Page 283
Unavoidable stress raisers......Page 285
Surprising crank failures......Page 286
10.6 Pedal cycle injury statistics......Page 287
British (and other) Standards......Page 288
10.6.3 Road testing......Page 289
10.7 The exploding wheel rim (case 1)......Page 291
10.7.2 Loading of the rim......Page 292
10.7.3 Wearing of the rim......Page 293
10.7.4 Weakness of the rim......Page 294
10.7.5 Measuring wear......Page 295
10.8.1 Interpretation of the Act......Page 296
10.9 The exploding wheel rim (case 2)......Page 297
10.9.2 Product recall......Page 299
10.10 Conclusions......Page 300
10.11 References......Page 301
11.1 Introduction......Page 303
11.1.1 Materials selection......Page 307
Climbing walls......Page 308
11.1.3 Forces generated in falls......Page 309
11.2 Ropes......Page 310
Twin ropes......Page 311
Failures and case studies......Page 312
Future......Page 315
Slings......Page 316
Web construction......Page 318
Harnesses......Page 319
Description and use of the equipment......Page 321
Standards......Page 322
Materials and manufacture......Page 323
Failures and case studies......Page 324
How do gates come open?......Page 325
Figure-of-eight failures......Page 326
11.5.1 Belay and descending devices......Page 327
Figure-of-eight......Page 328
Failures......Page 329
Materials and processing......Page 330
11.6 Rock protection......Page 331
Materials and manufacture......Page 333
Pegs and pitons......Page 334
11.7 Ice climbing equipment......Page 335
Standards......Page 336
Standards......Page 337
Incidents......Page 338
Crampon incidents......Page 339
Future directions of rock climbing and mountaineering......Page 340
Future trends in materials in mountaineering equipment......Page 341
Technical books......Page 342
‘How to’ books......Page 343
Trade organisations and shows......Page 344
Governing bodies and national clubs......Page 345
Standards......Page 346
11.12 References......Page 348
12.1 Introduction......Page 350
12.2 The impact of technology on the ski industry......Page 351
12.3 Contribution from materials and manufacturing......Page 354
12.4 Development of competitive and recreational skiing......Page 359
12.5 Future trends......Page 364
12.7 References and sources of further information......Page 365
13.1 Introduction......Page 366
13.2.1 Historic background......Page 367
13.2.3 Materials and construction of cricket balls......Page 369
13.2.4 Analysis of cores/balls......Page 371
13.2.5 Findings......Page 374
13.2.7 Conclusions......Page 376
13.3.1 Historic background......Page 377
13.3.2 Literature review......Page 378
13.3.3 Performance of cricket bats......Page 380
13.3.4 Materials and construction of cricket bats......Page 382
13.3.5 Conclusions......Page 385
13.4 Protective equipment in cricket......Page 387
13.4.1 Cricket helmet......Page 389
13.4.2 Cricket gloves......Page 391
13.5 Conclusions......Page 393
13.6 Future trends......Page 394
13.8 References......Page 396
14.1 Introduction......Page 400
14.2 Physical disabilities......Page 401
14.2.2 Spinal cord injury......Page 403
14.2.5 Cerebral palsy......Page 404
14.4 Devices and materials used in Paralympic sports......Page 405
14.4.1 Archery......Page 406
14.4.2 Athletics (track and field events)......Page 408
14.4.4 Cycling......Page 411
14.4.5 Equestrian......Page 412
14.4.6 Sailing......Page 414
14.4.8 Wheelchair tennis......Page 416
14.4.9 Ice sledge hockey......Page 418
14.5 Resources......Page 419
14.6 Future trends......Page 420
14.8 References......Page 421