Materials for Supercapacitor Applications

Cover
MATERIALS FOR
SUPERCAPACITOR
APPLICATIONS
Copyright
Preface
Chapter 1 - Supercapacitor: an introduction
	Outline
	1.1 - Supercapacitor—an emerging electrical energy storage device
	1.2 - Historical perspective
	1.3 - Supercapacitors and batteries as electrical energy storage devices—a comparison
		1.3.1 - Faradaic and non-Faradaic processes
		1.3.2 - Types of capacitors and batteries
		1.3.3 - Electrochemical capacitors and batteries: comparative properties
	1.4 - Outlook and scope of the monograph
	References
Chapter 2
 - Fundamentals and energy storage mechanisms—overview
	Outline
	2.1 - Introduction
	2.2 - Fundamentals
	2.3 - Supercapacitors: types
		2.3.1 - Electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLCs)
		2.3.2 - Pseudocapacitors
		2.3.3 - Hybrid capacitors
			2.3.3.1 - Composite supercapacitors
			2.3.3.2 - Asymmetric supercapacitors
			2.3.3.3 - Battery-type supercapacitors
	2.4 - Electric double layer
		2.4.1 - Helmholtz model
		2.4.2 - Gouy-Chapman or diffuse model
		2.4.3 - Stern model
		2.4.4 - Grahame model
		2.4.5 - Bockris-Devanathan-Müller (BDM) model
		2.4.6 - Trasatti-Buzzanca-Conway model
		2.4.7 - Marcus model
		2.4.8 - Electric double layer in supercapacitors
	2.5 - Pseudocapacitance
	2.6 - Summary and outlook
	References
Chapter 3
 - Electrode materials for supercapacitors
	Outline
	3.1 - Introduction
	3.2 - Electrode materials
		3.2.1 - Carbon materials in supercapacitors
			3.2.1.1 - Activated carbon
			3.2.1.2 - Mesoporous carbon
			3.2.1.3 - Carbide-derived carbons (CDC)
		3.2.2 - Carbon nanomaterials in supercapacitors
			3.2.2.1 - EDLCs
				3.2.2.1.1 - CNTs in EDLCs
				3.2.2.1.2 - Graphene in EDLCs
				3.2.2.1.3 - Hybrid carbon nanomaterials in EDLCs
			3.2.2.2 - Pseudocapacitors (PCs)
				3.2.2.2.1 - CNTs in PCs
				3.2.2.2.2 - Graphene in PCs
				3.2.2.2.3 - Hybrid carbon nanomaterials in PCs
			3.2.2.3 - Carbon-based hybrid supercapacitors
				3.2.2.3.1 - Carbon-based bendable supercapacitors (film-/fiber-shaped)
				3.2.2.3.2 - Carbon-based stretchable and twistable supercapacitors (film-/fiber-shaped)
				3.2.2.3.3 - Carbon-based ultrafast supercapacitors for ac-line filtering
	3.3 - Perspectives on carbon for SC electrodes
	3.4 - Transition metal oxides/hydroxides
		3.4.1 - RuO2
		3.4.2 - RuO2-based composites
			3.4.2.1 - Mixed-oxide composites
			3.4.2.2 - RuO2/carbon composites
			3.4.2.3 - RuO2/polymer composites
		3.4.3 - Manganese dioxide (MnO2) for PCs
			3.4.3.1 - Recent R&D Advancements in MnO2
		3.4.4 - Cobalt oxides and hydroxide for supercapacitors
			3.4.4.1 - Co3O4
			3.4.4.2 - Co(OH)2
		3.4.5 - Nickel oxide/hydroxide (NiO/Ni(OH)2)
			3.4.5.1 - NiO
			3.4.5.2 - Ni(OH)2
		3.4.6 - Nickel cobaltite (NiCo2O4)
		3.4.7 - Tin oxide
		3.4.8 - Vanadium oxides-based materials
			3.4.8.1 - Vanadium pentoxide
			3.4.8.2 - Other elemental metal doped vanadium pentoxide composites
			3.4.8.3 - Other vanadium pentoxide composites
			3.4.8.4 - Vanadium pentoxide/compound-carbon material composites
				3.4.8.4.1 - Vanadium pentoxide/activated carbon or carbon fiber material composites
				3.4.8.4.2 - Vanadium pentoxide/carbon nanotubes composites
				3.4.8.4.3 - Vanadium pentoxide/graphene composites
			3.4.8.5 - Vanadium pentoxide/conducting polymer composites
			3.4.8.6 - Vanadium dioxide
			3.4.8.7 - Vanadium trioxide
			3.4.8.8 - Mixed valence vanadium oxide and its composite
			3.4.8.9 - Nitrides
				3.4.8.9.1 - Vanadium nitride
				3.4.8.9.2 - Vanadium nitride/compound-carbon material composites
				3.4.8.9.3 - Vanadium nitride/titanium nitride composites
			3.4.8.10 - Vanadium sulfide
				3.4.8.10.1 - Vanadium disulfide
				3.4.8.10.2 - Vanadium tetrasulfide
				3.4.8.10.3 - Silver vanadium sulfide
				3.4.8.10.4 - Mixed metal vanadates
			3.4.8.11 - Vanadyl phosphate
		3.4.9 - Iron oxide-based materials
			3.4.9.1 - Influence of preparation routes
				3.4.9.1.1 - Hydrothermal method
				3.4.9.1.2 - Solvothermal method
				3.4.9.1.3 - Electrodeposition method
				3.4.9.1.4 - Spin coating technique
				3.4.9.1.5 - Electrospinning technique
				3.4.9.1.6 - Sol-gel method
				3.4.9.1.7 - Precipitation method
				3.4.9.1.8 - Successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) method
			3.4.9.2 - α-Fe2O3-based composites
				3.4.9.2.1 - α-Fe2O3-carbon composites
				3.4.9.2.2 - α-Fe2O3-conducting polymer composite
				3.4.9.2.3 - α-Fe2O3-metal oxide/hydroxide composite
				3.4.9.2.4 - Ternary nanocomposite
			3.4.9.3 - Cell performance of α-Fe2O3
				3.4.9.3.1 - Symmetric supercapacitor of α-Fe2O3
				3.4.9.3.2 - Asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC) of α-Fe2O3
	3.5 - Perspectives on transition metal oxides for SC electrodes
	3.6 - Conclusions and outlook
	References
Chapter 4 - Electrolyte materials for supercapacitors
	Outline
	4.1 - Introduction
	4.2 - Influence of electrolytes on the performance factors of ESs
		4.2.1 - Capacitance
		4.2.2 - Energy density and power density
		4.2.3 - Equivalent series resistance
		4.2.4 - Cycle life
		4.2.5 - Self-discharge rate
		4.2.6 - Thermal stability
	4.3 - Electrolyte materials and compositions for electrochemical supercapacitors
		4.3.1 - Aqueous electrolytes
			4.3.1.1 - Strong acid electrolytes
				4.3.1.1.1 - Acid electrolytes for electrical double-layer capacitors
				4.3.1.1.2 - Acid electrolytes for pseudocapacitors
				4.3.1.1.3 - Acidic electrolytes for hybrid capacitors
			4.3.1.2 - Strong alkaline electrolytes
				4.3.1.2.1 - Alkaline electrolytes for electrical double-layer capacitors
				4.3.1.2.2 - Alkaline electrolytes for pseudocapacitors
				4.3.1.2.3 - Alkaline electrolytes for hybrid capacitors
			4.3.1.3 - Neutral electrolytes
				4.3.1.3.1 - Neutral electrolytes for electrical double-layer capacitors
				4.3.1.3.2 - Neutral electrolytes for pseudocapacitors
				4.3.1.3.3 - Neutral electrolytes for hybrid capacitors
		4.3.2 - Organic electrolytes
			4.3.2.1 - General composition, properties, and ES performance of organic electrolytes
				4.3.2.1.1 - Organic electrolytes for electrical double-layer capacitors
				4.3.2.1.2 - Organic electrolytes for pseudocapacitors
				4.3.2.1.3 - Organic electrolytes for hybrid capacitors
				4.3.2.2 - Organic solvents
				4.3.2.2.1 - Single organic solvents for electrolytes
				4.3.2.2.2 - Solvent mixtures for electrolytes
			4.3.2.3 - Conducting salts for electrolytes
				4.3.2.3.1 - Effect of conducting salt on ES performance
				4.3.2.3.2 - Exploration of new conducting salts
		4.3.3 - Ionic liquid-based ES electrolytes
			4.3.3.1 - General composition, properties and ES performance of ionic liquid electrolytes
			4.3.3.2 - Solvent-free ionic liquids
				4.3.3.2.1 - Solvent-free ionic liquids for EDLCs
					4.3.3.2.1.1 - Aprotic ionic liquids
					4.3.3.2.1.2 - Protic ionic liquids
					4.3.3.2.1.3 - Mixture of ionic liquids
				4.3.3.2.2 - Solvent-free ionic liquids for pseudocapacitors
				4.3.3.2.3 - Solvent-free ionic liquids for hybrid electrochemical capacitors
			4.3.3.3 - Mixtures of ionic liquids and organic solvents
		4.3.4 - Solid- or quasi-solid-state electrolytes for ESs
			4.3.4.1 - Gel polymer electrolytes
				4.3.4.1.1 - Hydrogel polymer electrolytes
					4.3.4.1.1.1 - Hydrogel polymer electrolytes for carbon-based electrodes
					4.3.4.1.1.2 - Hydrogel polymer electrolytes for pseudocapacitors and hybrid capacitors
				4.3.4.1.2 - Organogel electrolytes
				4.3.4.1.3 - IL-based solid-state electrolytes
				4.3.4.1.4 - Environmentally friendly gel polymer electrolytes
				4.3.4.1.5 - Structural electrolytes
			4.3.4.2 - Inorganic solid-state electrolytes
		4.3.5 - Redox-active electrolytes
			4.3.5.1 - Redox-active aqueous electrolytes
				4.3.5.1.1 - Redox-active aqueous electrolytes for carbon-based ESs
				4.3.5.1.2 - Redox-active aqueous electrolytes for pseudocapacitive electrodes
			4.3.5.2 - Redox-active nonaqueous electrolytes
			4.3.5.3 - Redox-active solid electrolytes
	4.4 - Electrolyte compatibility with inactive components of ESs
		4.4.1 - Compatibility with current collectors
		4.4.2 - Binders
		4.4.3 - Separators
	4.5 - Electrolyte performance validation using supercapacitor test cells
	4.6 - Challenges in the development of ES electrolytes
	4.7 - Summary and future research directions
	References
Chapter 5 - Characterization methods for supercapacitors
	Outline
	5.1 - Introduction
	5.2 - Evaluation of supercapacitors performance
		5.2.1 - Overview of test procedures
		5.2.2 - Electrochemical apparatus
		5.2.3 - Electrochemical cell
		5.2.4 - Electrochemical interface: supercapacitors
	5.3 - Transient techniques
		5.3.1 - Cyclic voltammetry
		5.3.2 - Galvanostatic cycling
			5.3.2.1 - Constant current charge or discharge
			5.3.2.2 - Constant potential charge or discharge
			5.3.2.3 - Constant power charge or discharge
			5.3.2.4 - Leakage current and self-discharge behavior
		5.3.3 - Stationary technique
			5.3.3.1 - Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
			5.3.3.2 - Supercapacitor impedance
	5.4 - Key scaling parameters
		5.4.1 - Capacitance
		5.4.2 - Evaluation of CT
		5.4.3 - Evaluation of CS
		5.4.4 - Major influencing factors
	5.5 - Equivalent series resistance
		5.5.1 - Evaluation of RESR
		5.5.2 - Key influencing factors
	5.6 - Operating voltage, Vo
		5.6.1 - Evaluation of Vo
		5.6.2 - Major factors influencing Vo
	5.7 - Time constants
	5.8 - Power and energy densities
		5.8.1 - Power density
		5.8.2 - Energy density
	5.9 - Leakage and maximum peak currents
	5.10 - Cycle life and capacitance retention rate
	5.11 - Inconsistencies in evaluation of SCs
		5.11.1 - Causes for the inconsistencies
		5.11.2 - Device performance versus material property
		5.11.3 - Rate dependence
	5.12 - Other test procedures
	5.13 - Summary
	References
Chapter 6 - Supercapacitors: prospects and future direction
	Outline
	6.1 - Prospects and possible future research directions
	References
Index
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