Mastering modern psychological testing theory and methods

Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Special Interest Topics
1: Introduction to Psychological Assessment
	1.1	 Brief History of Testing
		1.1.1	 Earliest Testing: Circa 2200 BC
		1.1.2	 Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Testing
			1.1.2.1	 Carl Frederich Gauss
			1.1.2.2	 Civil Service Examinations
			1.1.2.3	 Physicians and Psychiatrists
		1.1.3	 Brass Instruments Era
			1.1.3.1	 Sir Francis Galton
			1.1.3.2	 James McKeen Cattell
			1.1.3.3	 Clark Wissler
		1.1.4	 Twentieth-Century Testing
			1.1.4.1	 Alfred Binet: Bring on Intelligence Testing!
			1.1.4.2	 Army Alpha and Beta Tests
			1.1.4.3	 Robert Woodworth: Bring on Personality Testing!
			1.1.4.4	 Rorschach Inkblot Test
			1.1.4.5	 College Admission Tests
			1.1.4.6	 Wechsler Intelligence Scales
			1.1.4.7	 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
		1.1.5	 Twenty-First-Century Testing
	1.2	 The Language of Assessment
		1.2.1	 Tests
		1.2.2	 Standardized Tests
		1.2.3	 Measurement
		1.2.4	 Assessment
		1.2.5	 Are Tests, Measurement, and Assessment Interchangeable Terms?
		1.2.6	 Other Important Terms
	1.3	 Types of Tests
		1.3.1	 Maximum Performance Tests
			1.3.1.1	 Achievement and Aptitude Tests
			1.3.1.2	 Objective and Subjective Tests
			1.3.1.3	 Speed and Power Tests
		1.3.2	 Typical Response Tests
			1.3.2.1	 Objective Personality Tests
			1.3.2.2	 Projective Personality Tests
	1.4	 Types of Scores
	1.5	 Assumptions of Psychological Assessment
		1.5.1	 Assumption #1: Psychological Constructs Exist
		1.5.2	 Assumption #2: Psychological Constructs Can Be Measured
		1.5.3	 Assumption #3: Although We Can Measure Constructs, Our Measurement Is Not Perfect
		1.5.4	 Assumption #4: There Are Different Ways to Measure Any Given Construct
		1.5.5	 Assumption #5: All Assessment Procedures Have Strengths and Limitations
		1.5.6	 Assumption #6: Multiple Sources of Information Should Be Part of the Assessment Process
		1.5.7	 Assumption #7: Performance on Tests Can Be Generalized to Non-Test Behaviors
		1.5.8	 Assumption #8: Assessment Can Provide Information that Helps Psychologists Make Better Professional Decisions
		1.5.9	 Assumption #9: Assessments Can Be Conducted in a Fair Manner
		1.5.10	 Assumption #10: Testing and Assessment Can Benefit Individuals and Society as a Whole
	1.6	 Why Use Tests?
	1.7	 Common Applications of Psychological Assessments
		1.7.1	 Diagnosis
		1.7.2	 Treatment Planning and Treatment Effectiveness
		1.7.3	 Selection, Placement, and Classification
		1.7.4	 Self-Understanding
		1.7.5	 Evaluation
		1.7.6	 Licensing
		1.7.7	 Program Evaluation
		1.7.8	 Scientific Method
	1.8	 Common Criticisms of Testing and Assessment
	1.9	 Participants in the Assessment Process
		1.9.1	 People Who Develop Tests
		1.9.2	 People Who Use Tests
		1.9.3	 People Who Take Tests
		1.9.4	 Other People Involved in Assessment Process
	1.10	 Psychological Assessment in the Twenty-First Century
		1.10.1	 Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT)
		1.10.2	 Other Technological Applications Used in Assessment
		1.10.3	 “Authentic” Assessments
		1.10.4	 Health-Care Delivery Systems
		1.10.5	 High-Stakes Assessment
	1.11	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading and Internet Sites
2: The Basic Statistics of Measurement
	2.1	 Scales of Measurement
		2.1.1	 What Is Measurement?
		2.1.2	 Nominal Scales
		2.1.3	 Ordinal Scales
		2.1.4	 Interval Scales
		2.1.5	 Ratio Scales
	2.2	 The Description of Test Scores
		2.2.1	 Distributions
		2.2.2	 Measures of Central Tendency
			2.2.2.1	 Mean
			2.2.2.2	 Median
			2.2.2.3	 Mode
			2.2.2.4	 Choosing Between the Mean, Median, and Mode
		2.2.3	 Measures of Variability
			2.2.3.1	 Range
			2.2.3.2	 Standard Deviation
			2.2.3.3	 Variance
			2.2.3.4	 Choosing Between the Range, Standard Deviation, and Variance
		2.2.4	 The Normal Distribution
	2.3	 Correlation Coefficients
		2.3.1	 Scatterplots
		2.3.2	 Types of Correlation Coefficients
		2.3.3	 Factors that Affect Correlation Coefficients
			2.3.3.1	 Linear Relationship
			2.3.3.2	 Range Restriction
		2.3.4	 Correlation Versus Causation
	2.4	 Linear Regression
		2.4.1	 Standard Error of Estimate
	2.5	 Summary
	Practice Items
	References
		Recommended Reading
		Internet Sites of Interest
3: The Meaning of Test Scores
	3.1	 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Score Interpretations
		3.1.1	 Norm-Referenced Interpretations
			3.1.1.1	 Norms and Reference Groups
			3.1.1.2	 Derived Scores Used with Norm-Referenced Interpretations
				3.1.1.2.1 Standard Scores
				3.1.1.2.2 Normalized Standard Scores
				3.1.1.2.3 Percentile Rank
				3.1.1.2.4 Grade Equivalents
		3.1.2	 Criterion-Referenced Interpretations
		3.1.3	 Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Both?
	3.2	 Scores Based on Item Response Theory
	3.3	 So What Scores Should We Use: Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Rasch-Based Scores?
	3.4	 Qualitative Description of Test Scores
	3.5	 Reporting Information on Normative Samples and Test Scores
	3.6	 Summary
	Practice Items
	References
		Recommended Reading
		Internet Sites of Interest
4: Reliability
	4.1	 Classical Test Theory and Measurement Error
	4.2	 Sources of Measurement Error
		4.2.1	 Content Sampling Error
		4.2.2	 Time Sampling Error
		4.2.3	 Other Sources of Error
	4.3	 Reliability Coefficients
		4.3.1	 Test-Retest Reliability
		4.3.2	 Alternate-Form Reliability
		4.3.3	 Internal-Consistency Reliability
			4.3.3.1	 Split-Half Reliability
			4.3.3.2	 Coefficient Alpha and Kuder-Richardson Reliability
		4.3.4	 Inter-Rater Reliability
		4.3.5	 Reliability Estimates Are Not Independent
		4.3.6	 Reliability of Composite Scores
		4.3.7	 Reliability of Difference Scores
		4.3.8	 Selecting a Reliability Coefficient
		4.3.9	 Evaluating Reliability Coefficients
			4.3.9.1	 Construct
			4.3.9.2	 Time Available for Testing
			4.3.9.3	 Test Score Use
			4.3.9.4	 Method of Estimating Reliability
			4.3.9.5	 General Guidelines
		4.3.10	 How to Improve Reliability
		4.3.11	 Special Problems in Estimating Reliability
	4.4	 The Standard Error of Measurement
		4.4.1	 Evaluating the Standard Error of Measurement
		4.4.2	 Calculating Confidence Intervals
	4.5	 Modern Test Theories
		4.5.1	 Generalizability Theory
		4.5.2	 Item Response Theory
	4.6	 Reporting Reliability Information
		4.6.1	 How Test Manuals Report Reliability Information: The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales, Second Edition (RIAS-2)
	4.7	 Reliability: Practical Strategies for Educators
	4.8	 Summary
	Practice Items
	References
		Recommended Reading
5: Validity
	5.1	 Threats to Validity
		5.1.1	 Examinee Characteristics
		5.1.2	 Test Administration and Scoring Procedures
		5.1.3	 Instruction and Coaching
	5.2	 Reliability and Validity
	5.3	 “Types of Validity” Versus “Types of Validity Evidence”
	5.4	 Sources of Validity Evidence
		5.4.1	 Evidence Based on Test Content
			5.4.1.1	 Face Validity
		5.4.2	 Evidence Based on Response Processes
		5.4.3	 Evidence Based on Internal Structure
			5.4.3.1	 Factor Analysis: A Gentle Introduction
			5.4.3.2	 Factor Analysis: The Process
			5.4.3.3	 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
		5.4.4	 Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables
			5.4.4.1	 Test-Criterion Relationships
				5.4.4.1.1 Selecting a Criterion
				5.4.4.1.2 Criterion Contamination
				5.4.4.1.3 Interpreting Validity Coefficients
			5.4.4.2	 Contrasted Groups Studies
			5.4.4.3	 Decision-Theory Models
				5.4.4.3.1 Selection Ratio and Base Rate
				5.4.4.3.2 Sensitivity and Specificity
			5.4.4.4	 Convergent and Discriminant Evidence
			5.4.4.5	 Validity Generalization
		5.4.5	 Evidence Based on Consequences of Testing
	5.5	 Integrating Evidence of Validity
	5.6	 How Test Manuals Report Validity Evidence: The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales, Second Edition (RIAS–2)
	5.7	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
6: Item Development
	6.1	 Item Formats
	6.2	 General Item Writing Guidelines
	6.3	 Maximum-Performance Tests
		6.3.1	 Multiple-Choice Items
		6.3.2	 True–False Items
		6.3.3	 Matching Items
		6.3.4	 Essay Items
		6.3.5	 Short-Answer Items
	6.4	 Typical-Response Tests
		6.4.1	 Typical-Response Item Formats
			6.4.1.1	 Rating Scale Item Example
		6.4.2	 Typical-Response Item Guidelines
	6.5	 Summary
	References
		Suggested Reading and Internet Sites
7: Item Analysis: Methods for Fitting the Right Items to the Right Test
	7.1	 Item Difficulty Index (or Item Difficulty Level)
		7.1.1	 Special Assessment Situations and Item Difficulty
	7.2	 Item Discrimination
		7.2.1	 Discrimination Index
		7.2.2	 Item Discrimination on Mastery Tests
		7.2.3	 Item Discrimination on Typical-Response Tests
		7.2.4	 Difficulty and Discrimination on Speed Tests
		7.2.5	 Examples of Item Difficulty and Discrimination Indices
	7.3	 Distracter Analysis
		7.3.1	 How Distracters Influence Item Difficulty and Discrimination
	7.4	 Qualitative Item Analysis
	7.5	 Item Characteristic Curves and Item Response Theory
		7.5.1	 Item Characteristic Curves
		7.5.2	 IRT Models
		7.5.3	 Invariance of Item Parameters
		7.5.4	 Special Applications of IRT
			7.5.4.1	 Computer Adaptive Testing
			7.5.4.2	 Detecting Biased Items
			7.5.4.3	 Scores Based on Item Response Theory
			7.5.4.4	 Reliability
	7.6	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
8: Achievement Tests in the Era of  High-Stakes Assessment
	8.1	 The Impetus for Achievement Tests
	8.2	 Group-Administered Achievement Tests
		8.2.1	 Commercial Standardized Achievement Test
			8.2.1.1	 Data Recognition Corporation (DRC)
			8.2.1.2	 Pearson
			8.2.1.3	 Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (HMH) Assessments
			8.2.1.4	 Diagnostic Achievement Tests
		8.2.2	 State-Developed Achievement Tests
		8.2.3	 Best Practices in Preparing Students for Standardized Assessment
	8.3	 Individual Achievement Tests
		8.3.1	 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Third Edition (WIAT-III)
		8.3.2	 Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (WJ-IV ACH)
		8.3.3	 Wide Range Achievement Test Fifth Edition (WRAT5)
		8.3.4	 Individual Achievement Tests That Focus on Specific Skills
			8.3.4.1	 Gray Oral Reading Test: Fifth Edition (GORT-5)
			8.3.4.2	 KeyMath-3 Diagnostic Assessment (KeyMath-3)
	8.4	 Selecting an Achievement Battery
	8.5	 Teacher-Constructed Achievement Tests and Student Evaluation
	8.6	 Achievement Tests: Not Only in the Public Schools!
		8.6.1	 Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP)
		8.6.2	 United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE)
	8.7	 Summary
	References
		Suggested Reading
9: Assessment of Intelligence
	9.1	 A Brief History of Intelligence Tests
	9.2	 The Use of Aptitude and Intelligence Tests in School Settings
		9.2.1	 Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies
		9.2.2	 A New Assessment Strategy for Specific Learning Disabilities: Response to Intervention (RTI)
		9.2.3	 Diagnosing Intellectual Disability
	9.3	 The Use of Aptitude and Intelligence Tests in Clinical Settings
	9.4	 Major Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
		9.4.1	 Group Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
			9.4.1.1	 K-12 Tests
				9.4.1.1.1 Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, 8th Edition (OLSAT-8)
				9.4.1.1.2 Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test, Third Edition (NNAT3)
				9.4.1.1.3 Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT), Form 7
			9.4.1.2	 Personnel and Vocational Assessment
			9.4.1.3	 College Admission Tests
				9.4.1.3.1 Scholastic Assessment Test
				9.4.1.3.2 American College Test
		9.4.2	 Individual Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
			9.4.2.1	 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V)
			9.4.2.2	 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5)
			9.4.2.3	 Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ IV) Tests of Cognitive Abilities
			9.4.2.4	 Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales, Second Edition (RIAS-2)
	9.5	 Selecting Aptitude/Intelligence Tests
	9.6	 Understanding the Report of an Intellectual Assessment
	9.7	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
10: Assessment of Personality
	10.1	 Assessing Personality
		10.1.1	 Response Sets and Dissimulation
		10.1.2	 Factors Affecting Reliability and Validity
	10.2	 Objective Personality Tests: An Overview
		10.2.1	 Content/Rational Approach
		10.2.2	 Empirical Criterion Keying
		10.2.3	 Factor Analysis
		10.2.4	 Theoretical Approach
	10.3	 Assessment of Personality in Children and Adolescents
		10.3.1	 Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition: Self-Report of Personality (SRP)
		10.3.2	 Single-Domain Self-Report Measures
	10.4	 Projective Personality Tests: An Overview
		10.4.1	 Projective Drawings
			10.4.1.1	 Draw-A-Person (DAP) Test
			10.4.1.2	 House-Tree-Person (H-T-P)
			10.4.1.3	 Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD)
		10.4.2	 Sentence Completion Tests
		10.4.3	 Apperception Tests
		10.4.4	 Inkblot Techniques
	10.5	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
11: Behavioral Assessment
	11.1	 Assessing Behavior
	11.2	 Response Sets
	11.3	 Assessment of Behavior in the Schools
	11.4	 Behavioral Interviewing
	11.5	 Behavior Rating Scales
		11.5.1	 Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition: Teacher Rating Scales and Parent Rating Scales (TRSs and PRSs)
		11.5.2	 Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment: Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher Report Form (CBCL and TRF)
		11.5.3	 Single-Domain or Syndrome-Specific Rating Scales
			11.5.3.1	 Childhood Autism Rating Scale, Second Edition (CARS-2)
			11.5.3.2	 Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale, Second Edition (RADS-2)
			11.5.3.3	 Pediatric Behavior Rating Scale (PBRS)
		11.5.4	 Adaptive Behavior Scales
			11.5.4.1	 Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Third Edition (Vineland-3)
		11.5.5	 Adult Behavior Rating Scales
	11.6	 Direct Observation
	11.7	 Continuous Performance Tests
	11.8	 Psychophysiological Assessments
	11.9	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
12: Employment and Vocational Testing
	12.1	 Historical View of I/O Psychology
	12.2	 Personnel Selection Approaches
		12.2.1	 Cognitive Ability
		12.2.2	 Interviews
		12.2.3	 Integrity
		12.2.4	 Assessment Centers
		12.2.5	 Work Sample Tests
		12.2.6	 Biodata
	12.3	 Choosing a Personnel Selection Approach
		12.3.1	 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Approaches
		12.3.2	 Applicant Reactions
		12.3.3	 Job Analysis
	12.4	 Evaluating Job Performance
		12.4.1	 Approaches to Performance Ratings
		12.4.2	 Comparison of Rating Approaches
		12.4.3	 Types of Rating Methods
		12.4.4	 Sources of Error
	12.5	 Legal Issues
		12.5.1	 The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978)
		12.5.2	 Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures, Fifth Edition (2018)
	12.6	 Career Assessment
		12.6.1	 Strong Interest Inventory, Revised Edition
		12.6.2	 Career Decision-Making System, Revised
		12.6.3	 Self-Directed Search
	12.7	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
13: Neuropsychological Testing
	13.1	 Components of a Neuropsychological Evaluation
	13.2	 Neuropsychological Assessment Approaches and Instruments
		13.2.1	 The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRNB)
		13.2.2	 The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) for Adults
		13.2.3	 The Boston Process Approach
	13.3	 Assessment of Memory Functions
		13.3.1	 TOMAL-2: An Example of a Contemporary Comprehensive Memory Assessment
	13.4	 The Process of Neuropsychological Assessment
		13.4.1	 Referral
		13.4.2	 Review of Records
		13.4.3	 Clinical Interview
		13.4.4	 Test Selection
		13.4.5	 Test Conditions
	13.5	 Measurement of Deficits and Strengths
		13.5.1	 Normative Approach
		13.5.2	 Deficit Measurement Approach
		13.5.3	 Premorbid Ability
		13.5.4	 Pattern Analysis
		13.5.5	 Pathognomonic Signs
	13.6	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
14: Forensic Applications of Psychological Assessment
	14.1	 What Is Forensic Psychology?
	14.2	 Expert Witnesses and Expert Testimony
	14.3	 Clinical Assessment Versus Forensic Assessment
	14.4	 Applications in Criminal Proceedings
		14.4.1	 Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity: The NGRI Defense
		14.4.2	 Competency to Stand Trial
		14.4.3	 Transfer of a Juvenile to Adult Criminal Court
		14.4.4	 Mitigation in Sentencing
		14.4.5	 The Special Case of Intellectual Disability in Capital Sentencing
		14.4.6	 Competency to Be Executed
	14.5	 Applications in Civil Proceedings
		14.5.1	 Personal Injury Litigation
		14.5.2	 Divorce and Child Custody
		14.5.3	 Determining Common Civil Competencies
		14.5.4	 Other Civil Matters
	14.6	 Third Party Observers in Forensic Psychological Testing
	14.7	 Detection of Malingering and Other Forms of Dissimulation
	14.8	 The Admissibility of Testimony Based on Psychological Testing Results
	14.9	 Summary
	References
		Additional Reading
15: The Problem of Bias in Psychological Assessment
	15.1	 What Do We Mean by Bias?
	15.2	 Past and Present Concerns: A Brief Look
	15.3	 The Controversy Over Bias in Testing: Its Origin, What It Is, and What It Is Not
		15.3.1	 Explaining Mean Group Differences
		15.3.2	 Test Bias and Etiology
		15.3.3	 Test Bias and Fairness
		15.3.4	 Test Bias and Offensiveness
		15.3.5	 Test Bias and Inappropriate Test Administration and Use
		15.3.6	 Bias and Extraneous Factors
	15.4	 Cultural Bias and the Nature of Psychological Testing
	15.5	 Objections to the Use of Educational and Psychological Tests with Minority Students
		15.5.1	 Inappropriate Content
		15.5.2	 Inappropriate Standardization Samples
		15.5.3	 Examiner and Language Bias
		15.5.4	 Inequitable Social Consequences
		15.5.5	 Measurement of Different Constructs
		15.5.6	 Differential Predictive Validity
		15.5.7	 Qualitatively Distinct Aptitude and Personality
	15.6	 The Problem of Definition in Test Bias Research: Differential Validity
	15.7	 Cultural Loading, Cultural Bias, and Culture-Free Tests
	15.8	 Inappropriate Indicators of Bias: Mean Differences and Equivalent Distributions
	15.9	 Bias in Test Content
		15.9.1	 How Test Publishers Commonly Identify Biased Items
	15.10	 Bias in Other Internal Features of Tests
		15.10.1	 How Test Publishers Commonly Identify Bias in Construct Measurement
	15.11	 Bias in Prediction and in Relation to Variables External to the Test
		15.11.1	 How Test Publishers Commonly Identify Bias in Prediction
	15.12	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
16: Assessment Accommodations
	16.1	 Accommodations Versus Modifications
	16.2	 The Rationale for Assessment Accommodations
	16.3	 When Are Accommodations Not Appropriate or Necessary?
	16.4	 Strategies for Accommodations
		16.4.1	 Modifications of Presentation Format
		16.4.2	 Modifications of Response Format
		16.4.3	 Modifications of Timing
		16.4.4	 Modifications of Setting
		16.4.5	 Adaptive Devices and Supports
		16.4.6	 Using Only Portions of a Test
		16.4.7	 Using Alternate Assessments
	16.5	 Determining What Accommodations to Provide
	16.6	 Assessment of English Language Learners (ELLs)
	16.7	 Reporting Results of Modified Assessments
	16.8	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
17: Best Practices: Legal and Ethical Issues
	17.1	 Guidelines for Developing Assessments
	17.2	 Guidelines for Selecting Published Assessments
	17.3	 Guidelines for Administering Assessments
	17.4	 Guidelines for Scoring Assessments
	17.5	 Guidelines for Interpreting Assessment Results, Making Clinical Decisions, and Reporting Results
	17.6	 Responsibilities of Test Takers
	17.7	 Summary and Top 10 Assessment-Related Behaviors to Avoid
	References
		Suggested Reading
		Internet Sites of Interest
18: How to Develop a Psychological Test: A Practical Approach
	18.1	 Phase I: Test Conceptualization
		18.1.1	 Conduct a Literature Review and Develop a Statement of Need for the Test
		18.1.2	 Describe the Proposed Uses and Interpretations of Results From the Test
		18.1.3	 Determine Who Will Use the Test and Why
		18.1.4	 Develop Conceptual and Operational Definitions of Constructs You Intend to Measure
		18.1.5	 Determine Whether Measures of Dissimulation Are Needed and If So, What Kind
			18.1.5.1	 Scales for Detecting Dissimulation on Assessments of Personality and Behavior
			18.1.5.2	 Scales for Detecting Dissimulation on Assessments of Aptitude and Achievement
	18.2	 Phase II: Specification of Test Structure and Format
		18.2.1	 Designate the Age Range Appropriate for the Measure
		18.2.2	 Determine and Describe the Testing Format
		18.2.3	 Describe the Structure of the Test
		18.2.4	 Develop a Table of Specifications (TOS)
		18.2.5	 Determine and Describe the Item Formats and Write Instructions for Administration and Scoring
		18.2.6	 Develop an Explanation of Methods for Item Development, Tryout, and Final Item Selection
	18.3	 Phase III: Planning Standardization and Psychometric Studies
		18.3.1	 Specify a Sampling Plan for Standardization
		18.3.2	 Determine Your Choice of Scaling Methods and Rationale
		18.3.3	 Briefly Outline the Reliability Studies to Be Performed and Their Rationale
		18.3.4	 Briefly Outline the Validity Studies to Be Performed and Their Rationale
		18.3.5	 Determine If There Are Any Special Studies That May Be Needed for Development of This Test or to Support Proposed Interpretations of Performance
		18.3.6	 List the Components of the Test
	18.4	 Phase 4: Plan Implementation
		18.4.1	 Reevaluate the Test Content and Structure
		18.4.2	 Prepare the Test Manual
		18.4.3	 Submit a Test Proposal
	18.5	 Summary
	References
		Recommended Reading
Appendix: Calculation (Table A.1)
Index