Marine Pollution – Monitoring, Management and Mitigation: Monitoring, Management and Mitigation (Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment)

Prologue
Contents
Editor and Contributors
1 Marine Pollution in Context
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	1.1  Introduction
		1.1.1  Intentional, Accidental, and Uncontrollable Pollution
	Box 1.1: Example of Intentional Contaminant Release
	Box 1.2: Plastics, Microplastics, and Nanoplastics
	1.2  Properties of Seawater
	Box 1.3: Water, Solvation, and Energy
	1.3  Water in the Mixing Zone Between Rivers and the Ocean
	1.4  A Brief Social History of Pollution
		1.4.1  Contamination and Pollution
	1.5  Organism Exposure to Contamination
	1.6  Contaminant Behaviour
	1.7  A Multidisciplinary Approach to Understanding Pollution and Polluting Activities
	1.8  Polluting Substances—Local and Global Considerations
	Box 1.4: The Minamata Disaster
	1.9  Summary
	1.10  Study Questions and Activities
	References
2 Collecting, Measuring, and Understanding Contaminant Concentrations in the Marine Environment
	Acronyms and Abbreviation
	2.1  Introduction
	2.2  Defining the Purpose of the Research
	2.3  Transport and Storage of Contaminants
	2.4  Developing a Sampling Program
		2.4.1  Define Locations, Sites, and Replicates
		2.4.2  Sampling Plan
	2.5  Units of Measurement
	2.6  Water Sampling and Analysis
		2.6.1  Surface Water
		2.6.2  Water from Depth
		2.6.3  Pore Water and Groundwater
	2.7  Sediment Sampling and Analysis
		2.7.1  Surface Sediments
		2.7.2  Sediment Cores
		2.7.3  Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
	2.8  Biota Sampling
		2.8.1  Tissue Sampling
		2.8.2  Biomonitors
		2.8.3  Collecting Pelagic Species
		2.8.4  Collecting Benthic Species
	Box 2.1: NOAA Mussel Watch Program, United States of America
	2.9  Quality Assurance and Quality Control
		2.9.1  NATA Registration and Other Global Systems
		2.9.2  Chain of Custody
		2.9.3  Sample Storage and Integrity
		2.9.4  Step to Ensure Analytical Certainty
		2.9.5  Detection Limits
		2.9.6  Dealing with Difficult Samples
		2.9.7  Dealing with Novel Contaminants
	2.10  Identifying Contamination
		2.10.1  Determining Background Concentrations
		2.10.2  Normalising Techniques
		2.10.3  Understanding Degradation
		2.10.4  Using Guideline Values
		2.10.5  Development of Guidelines for New and Emerging Contaminants
	2.11  Summary
	2.12  Study Questions and Activities
	References
3 Assessing Organism and Community Responses
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	3.1  Introduction
	3.2  Ecotoxicology
	Box 3.1. Microcosms and Mesocosm Studies in Ecotoxicology
		3.2.1  General Principles of Ecotoxicology
		3.2.2  Factors Influencing Toxicity
		3.2.3  Considerations for Planning Ecotoxicology Experiments
		3.2.4  Selecting Species for Toxicity Testing
	Box 3.2: Global Horizon Scanning Project
	3.3  Current Status of Marine Ecotoxicology
		3.3.1  Temperate Marine Ecotoxicology
		3.3.2  Polar Marine Ecotoxicology
		3.3.3  Tropical Marine Ecotoxicology
	3.4  Using Ecotoxicological Data to Set Guideline Values
		3.4.1  Deriving Limits
	3.5  Limitations of Species Toxicity Studies
	3.6  Assessing Responses from Organisms at the Community Level
		3.6.1  In situ Studies
		3.6.2  Experimental In situ Studies
		3.6.3  Laboratory Studies
	3.7  Summary
	3.8  Study Questions and Activities
	References
4 Nutrients and Eutrophication
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	4.1  Introduction
	4.2  Nutrification and Eutrophication in Marine Waters
		4.2.1  Definitions
		4.2.2  Nutrient Types
		4.2.3  Nutrient Limitation and Nutrient Ratios
		4.2.4  Sources and Causes
		4.2.5  Temperate Versus Tropical Waters
		4.2.6  Effects Related to Eutrophication
		4.2.7  Tropical Ecosystem Effects
	4.3  Case Studies
		4.3.1  Baltic Sea
		4.3.2  Chesapeake Bay, USA
		4.3.3  Yellow Sea and Qingdao
		4.3.4  Caribbean Wide Algal Blooms and West Africa
		4.3.5  Brittany
		4.3.6  Tampa Bay, Florida, USA
		4.3.7  Kāne’ohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii, USA
		4.3.8  Pago Pago Harbour, American Samoa
	4.4  Time Lags and Non-linear Responses
	4.5  Management, Future Prospects and Conclusions
	4.6  Summary
	4.7  Study Questions and Activities
	References
5 Metals and Metalloids
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	5.1  Introduction
	5.2  Sources of Trace Metals
		5.2.1  Natural Sources
		5.2.2  Anthropogenic Atmospheric Inputs
		5.2.3  Mining Operations
		5.2.4  Mineral Processing
		5.2.5  Urban and Industrial Discharges
		5.2.6  Other Sources
	5.3  Metal Behaviour in Marine Waters
		5.3.1  Metal Speciation
		5.3.2  Evaluating Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Marine Waters
	5.4  Metal Behaviour in Marine Sediments
		5.4.1  Metal Forms in Sediments
		5.4.2  Metal Bioavailability in Sediments
	5.5  Metal Uptake by Marine Organisms
		5.5.1  Transport Across Biological Membranes
		5.5.2  Other Uptake Routes
		5.5.3  Metal Detoxification
		5.5.4  Metal Depuration
	5.6  Metal Toxicity to Marine Organisms
		5.6.1  Mercury Toxicity to Marine Biota
		5.6.2  Copper Toxicity to Marine Biota
	5.7  Managing Metal Pollution
		5.7.1  What Is ‘Pollution’
		5.7.2  Guideline Values
	5.8  Summary
	5.9  Study Questions and Activities
	References
6 Oil and Gas
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	6.1  Introduction
	6.2  Sources of Oil in the Marine Environment
		6.2.1  Naturally Seeped Oil
		6.2.2  Oil from Land-Based Sources
		6.2.3  Oil from Shipping Activities
		6.2.4  Oil from Exploration and Exploitation Activities
		6.2.5  Oil from Atmospheric Sources
		6.2.6  Natural Gas
	Box 6.1: Jiyeh Power Plant Spill, July 2006
	Box 6.2: Examples of Accidental Oil Spills
	Box 6.3: The MV Prestige Oil Spill, Spain
	Box 6.4: Examples of Accidental Oil Spills from Oil Platforms
	6.3  Fate of Oil in the Marine Environment
		6.3.1  Physical Factors Influencing Oil Degradation
		6.3.2  Oil Clean-Up and Recovery Activities
		6.3.3  Oil Spill Monitoring Activities
	Box 6.5: Oil Spill Monitoring in the North Sea
	6.4  Consequences of Oil Pollution
		6.4.1  Impact of Oil on Marine Ecosystems
		6.4.2  Impact of Oil on Marine Taxa
		6.4.3  Economic Damage from Oil Pollution
	Box 6.6: The Effects of a Small Oil Spill at Macquarie Island, Subantarctic
	Box 6.7: Short Term and Long-Term Impacts of Oil Spills
	Box 6.8: Economic Impacts of Oil Pollution on Fishing
	6.5  Planning for, and Responding to, Oil Pollution Incidents
		6.5.1  Context
		6.5.2  Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response Co-operation (OPRC)
		6.5.3  Contingency Planning, Risk Assessment, and Emergency Response
	Box 6.9: Contingency Plans and Risk Assessment
	6.6  Summary
	6.7  Study Questions and Activities
	References
7 Pesticides and Biocides
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	7.1  Introduction
	7.2  A Brief History of Pesticide Use
	7.3  Types of Pesticides
		7.3.1  Classification by Target Organism
		7.3.2  Classification by Chemical Structure
		7.3.3  Classification by Mode of Action (MoA)
	7.4  Quantities of Pesticides Used
	7.5  Environmentally Relevant Properties
		7.5.1  Molecular Weight
		7.5.2  Aqueous Solubility and Hydrophobicity
		7.5.3  Partition Coefficients
		7.5.4  Volatility
		7.5.5  Degradation and Persistence
	Box 7.1: Important Physicochemical Properties of Organic Pesticides That Control Their Environmental Behaviour
	7.6  Pesticide Distribution in the Marine Environment
		7.6.1  Transport to Marine Environments via River Waters and Sediments
		7.6.2  Transport of Pesticides to Marine Waters via the Atmosphere
		7.6.3  Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Transport of Pesticides to and Within Marine Waters
	Box 7.2: Aqueous Transport of Pesticides to the Great Barrier Reef, Australia
	7.7  Marine Biocides
		7.7.1  Impacts of TBT Use and Regulation
		7.7.2  Advancing Technologies
	Box 7.3: The Effects of TBT on Non-target Organisms
	7.8  Effects of Pesticides in Marine Environments
	7.9  Summary
	7.10  Study Questions and Activities
	References
8 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
	Abbreviations
	8.1  Introduction
	Box 8.1: Definition of POPs and Their Problematic Properties
	8.2  History of POPs
	8.3  The Stockholm Convention
		8.3.1  Overview of the Convention
		8.3.2  Annexes and Exemptions for Some POPs
		8.3.3  The Original Set of 12 POPs Covered by the Stockholm Convention
		8.3.4  Additional POPs Now Covered by the Stockholm Convention
	Box 8.2: Aroclors and Other Commercially Manufactured PCB Mixtures
	8.4  Naming Conventions for Individual PCCD, PCDF, and PCB Compounds
	Box 8.3: The Meaning and Use of the Terms ‘Congener’, ‘Congener Number’, ‘Homologue’, and ‘Homologous Series’
	8.5  Assessment of Toxicity and Quantifying Exposure Risks for POPS
		8.5.1  Assessment of Toxicity and Exposure Risks for Dioxins, Furans, and Dioxin-Like PCBs
		8.5.2  The Meaning and Use of the Terms TEF and TEQ
		8.5.3  Use of Homologues and Congener Profiles in Forensic Investigations
	8.6  Case Studies
		8.6.1  Case Study 1—Dioxins, Furans, and Dioxin-Like PCBs in the Australian Aquatic Environment.
		8.6.2  Case Study 2—Spatial and Temporal Trends in Concentrations of Brominated Fire-Retardant POPs in Arctic Marine Mammal Tissues
	8.7  Summary
	8.8  Study Questions and Activities
	References
9 Plastics
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	9.1  Introduction
	9.2  Plastic Types and Characteristics
		9.2.1  Macroplastics
		9.2.2  Microplastics
	Box 9.1: Plastic Polymers: Recycling Numbers and Examples of Common Uses
	Box 9.2: Marine Plastic Debris: Examples of Debris in Different Size Categories
	9.3  Sources
	9.4  Plastic Transport in the Marine Environment
		9.4.1  Modelling the Movements of Plastic
		9.4.2  Accumulation
		9.4.3  Plastics in Remote Environments
	Box 9.3: What is the Significance of Microplastic Items in Sea Ice?
	9.5  Degrading Processes
		9.5.1  Complications of Measuring and Comparing Plastic Pollution
	Box 9.4: The Physical and Chemical Degradation Processes of Plastic
		Weathering Agents in Different Marine Zones
	9.6  Impacts of Plastic Debris
		9.6.1  Impacts Overview
		9.6.2  Physical Interactions with Wildlife
		9.6.3  Plastic as an Unnatural Substrate
		9.6.4  Chemical Effects of Microplastics
		9.6.5  Human Health Impacts
		9.6.6  Economic Impacts
	9.7  Actions to Drive Change
	9.8  Summary
	9.9  Questions and Activities
	References
10 Radioactivity
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	10.1  Introduction
	10.2  Understanding Radioactivity and Units of Measurement
		10.2.1  Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay
		10.2.2  Alpha, Beta and Gamma Decay
		10.2.3  Developing a Measurable Unit
		10.2.4  Half-Lives
	Box 10.1: Understanding Half-lives
	10.3  Sources of Radioactivity
		10.3.1  Natural Radioactivity
		10.3.2  Anthropogenic Radioactivity
		10.3.3  Radioactive Waste Management
	Box 10.2: Radioisotopes in Environmental Science: Nutrients Release 6000 Year Old Carbon from Coastal Sediment
	Box 10.3: Radioactive Pollution in the Marine Environment from the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident
	10.4  Effects on Marine Biota
	Box 10.4: Bikini Atoll Five Decades On
	10.5  Summary
	10.6  Study Questions And Activities
	References
11 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Changing Ocean Chemistry
	Abbreviations
	11.1  Introduction
	11.2  The Global Carbon Cycle
	Box 11.1: Basic Carbonate Chemistry
	11.3  The Physical and Biological Carbon Pumps
	11.4  Human-Induced Changes to the Global Carbon Cycle
		11.4.1  Ocean Acidification
		11.4.2  Potential Effects of Ocean Acidification on Key Organisms and Processes of the Marine Carbon Cycle
		11.4.3  Potential Effects of Ocean Acidification on Biogeochemical Element Cycling
	Box 11.2: Calcium Carbonate
		Ocean Acidification and Saturation State
	11.5  Outlook
	11.6  Summary
	11.7  Study Questions and Activities
	References
12 Other Important Marine Pollutants
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	12.1  Introduction
	12.2  Noise Pollution
		12.2.1  Natural Sources of Sound in the Sea
		12.2.2  Anthropogenic Sources of Sounds in the Sea
		12.2.3  Effects of Anthropogenic Noises
	Box 12.1: Characteristics of Sound
	Box 12.2: Cetaceans, Seabirds and Ocean Noise
		Cetacean and Ocean Noise
		Seabirds and Ocean Noise
	12.3  Light Pollution
	12.4  Thermal Pollution
	12.5  Particulates
		12.5.1  Particulate Organic Matter
		12.5.2  Suspended Sediments
	12.6  Pathogens
		12.6.1  Sources of Marine Pathogens
	12.7  Personal Care Products (PCPs)
		12.7.1  Triclosan and Triclocarban
		12.7.2  Sunscreens
	Box 12.3: Some Personal Care Products (PCPs) of Concern
		4-methylbenzylidene-camphor (4-MBC)
		benzophenone-3
	12.8  Non-native Species
	12.9  Summary
	12.10  Study Questions and Activities
	References
13 Marine Contaminants of Emerging Concern
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	13.1  Introduction
		13.1.1  What is Meant by “Emerging”?
	Box 13.1: Definitions of Contaminants of Emerging Concern
		Important Note
		13.1.2  What is Meant by “Concern”?
	Box 13.2: The NORMAN Network
	13.2  Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Marine Environment
	13.3  The Relationship Between CECs and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
	Box 13.3: Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)
	13.4  Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) as CECs
	13.5  Nanomaterials
	Box 13.4: Types and Classifications of Nanomaterials
	Box 13.5: Origin and Sources of Nanomaterials
	13.6  PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances)
	Box 13.6: What are Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and How do they Relate to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)?
	Box 13.7: The Role of PFAS Chain Length in Relation to Environmental Behaviour and Level of Concern
		13.6.1  Naming Conventions Used for PFAS
	Box 13.8: Simplified Naming System for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)
	Box 13.9: Applying the Simplified Naming System to Perfluoroalkyl Substances
	Box 13.10: Applying the Simplified Naming System to Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
		13.6.2  PFAS and Precursors
	13.7  Summary
	13.8  Study Questions and Activities
	References
14 Multiple Stressors
	14.1  Introduction
	14.2  The Study of Multiple Stressors
		14.2.1  Definitions
	14.3  Stressor Interactions in the Marine Environment
		14.3.1  Nutrients and Trace Metals
		14.3.2  Trace Metals and Pesticides
		14.3.3  Contamination and Climate Change
		14.3.4  Three or More Stressor Interactions
	Box 14.1: Contaminants, Boat Harbours and Non-indigenous Species
	14.4  Management of Multiple Stressors
	14.5  Summary
	14.6  Study Questions and Activites
	References
15 Pollution Mitigation and Ecological Restoration
	Acronyms and Abbreviations
	15.1  Introduction
	15.2  What is Restoration?
	15.3  Key Principles of Practices in Ecological Restoration
	15.4  Cost and Success of Restoration
	15.5  Marine Pollution Mitigation and Reduction
		15.5.1  Mitigating Coastal Catchment Discharges
	Box 15.1: Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan—A Mitigation Strategy
	15.6  Marine Habitat Restoration
		15.6.1  Oyster Reefs
		15.6.2  Coral Reefs
	Box 15.2: Assess Before you Invest: The Need for Careful Site Selection in Shellfish Reef Restoration
		15.6.2  Seagrasses
		15.6.3 Mangroves
		15.6.4 Saltmarsh
	Box 15.3: Scaling up Coral Restoration for Reef Recovery
		15.6.5 Engineering, Technology and Marine Ecosystem Restoration
	Box 15.4: Case Study: Fingal Wetland Rehabilitation Project, New South Wales, Australia
	15.7  Marine Species as Bioremediators
	15.8  Summary
	15.9  Study Questions and Activities
	References
16 Regulation, Legislation and Policy—An International Perspective
	Abbreviations
	16.1  Introduction
	16.2  The Global Setting
		16.2.1  Global Regulatory Structure of Marine Pollution
	16.3  Shipping
		16.3.1  The International Maritime Organization (IMO)
		16.3.2  Hierarchy of Legalization and Responsibilities
		16.3.3  Benefits of IMO Responsibility to Prevent Marine Pollution
		16.3.4  Limitations of the IMO and the London Convention and London Protocol
	16.4  Other Global Instruments that Relate to Marine Pollution
		16.4.1  The Paris Agreement
		16.4.2  Other Conventions
		16.4.3  The International Seabed Authority
		16.4.4  International Atomic Energy Agency
		16.4.5  Convention of Biological Diversity
		16.4.6  Global Legislation on Plastic Waste?
		16.4.7  The Precautionary Principle
	16.5  Summary
	16.6  Study Questions and Activities
	References
Appendix I
Appendix II
Index