Machine ethics

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
General Introduction......Page 11
Part I: The Nature of Machine Ethics......Page 15
Introduction......Page 17
Varieties of Machine Ethics......Page 23
Implicit Ethical Agents......Page 25
Explicit Ethical Agents......Page 26
Full Ethical Agents......Page 28
References......Page 30
2 Machine Metaethics......Page 31
References......Page 37
3 Ethics for Machines......Page 38
What Are Machines, Anyway?......Page 39
Why Machines Need Ethics......Page 40
What is Ethics, Anyway?......Page 43
Observations on the Theory......Page 45
Comparison with Standard Ethical Theories......Page 46
Golden Rules......Page 47
Utilitarianism......Page 48
The Veil of Ignorance......Page 49
Normative Implications......Page 50
The Road Ahead......Page 51
Bibliography......Page 53
Part II: The Importance of Machine Ethics......Page 55
Introduction......Page 57
4 Why Machine Ethics?......Page 61
Good and Bad Artificial Agents?......Page 62
Making Ethics Explicit......Page 63
Moral Agency for AI......Page 64
Science Fiction or Scientific Challenge?......Page 65
A New Field of Inquiry: Machine Ethics......Page 66
Finding the Right Approach......Page 67
Beyond Stoicism......Page 69
References......Page 70
Eliza and the crisis of authenticity......Page 72
The recent history of computation and its psychological benchmarks......Page 75
Engagement with a subject......Page 78
Imitation beguiles......Page 80
The purposes of living things......Page 83
References......Page 85
Part III: Issues Concerning Machine Ethics......Page 87
Introduction......Page 89
Why Is Machine Ethics Interesting?......Page 98
The Similarity of Ethical Reasoning to Reasoning in General......Page 100
Fable......Page 103
What a Machine Wants......Page 106
Necessary Conditions for Wanting......Page 110
Sufficient Conditions for Wanting......Page 112
Temptation......Page 116
Conclusions......Page 119
References......Page 122
Introduction......Page 125
Machine Ethics: Some Key Questions......Page 126
Four Perspectives......Page 129
Anthropocentrism......Page 131
Infocentrism......Page 132
Biocentrism......Page 135
Ecocentrism......Page 138
Conclusion: The Machine and Its Place in Nature......Page 140
References......Page 145
Introduction......Page 148
Is It Possible?......Page 149
Is It Right?......Page 155
Conclusions......Page 158
References......Page 160
Morality and Human-Robot Interactions......Page 161
Morality and Technologies......Page 162
Autonomous Robots......Page 164
Philosophical Views on the Moral Agency of Robots......Page 165
Autonomy......Page 167
Intentionality......Page 168
Responsibility......Page 169
References......Page 170
10 Philosophical Concerns with Machine Ethics......Page 172
References......Page 177
Introduction......Page 178
Natural and Human-Made Entities/Artifacts......Page 179
Morality and Moral Agency......Page 182
The Intentionality of Computer Behavior......Page 187
Computer Systems as Moral Entities......Page 189
Conclusions......Page 192
References......Page 193
Introduction: Standard versus Nonstandard Theories of Agents and Patients......Page 194
What Is an Agent?......Page 197
On the Very Idea of Levels of Abstraction......Page 198
Definitions......Page 199
Relativism......Page 200
State and State Transitions......Page 201
An Effective Characterization of Agents......Page 202
Noughts and Crosses......Page 203
SmartPaint......Page 207
Morality of Agents......Page 208
A-Responsible Morality......Page 209
The Freedom Objection......Page 210
The Responsibility Objection......Page 211
Morality Threshold......Page 213
Examples......Page 214
Computer Ethics......Page 215
Codes of Ethics......Page 216
Censorship......Page 217
Conclusion......Page 218
References......Page 220
13 Legal Rights for Machines: Some Fundamental Concepts......Page 223
Author’s Note......Page 234
References......Page 235
Part IV: Approaches to Machine Ethics......Page 239
a. Overview......Page 241
b. Asimov’s Laws......Page 242
c. Artificial Intelligence Approaches......Page 244
d. Psychological/Sociological Approaches......Page 247
e. Philosophical Approaches......Page 249
Consequentialist Theories......Page 254
Deontological Theories......Page 257
Automated Ethical Reasoning......Page 259
Could a Robot be Ethical?......Page 260
A Robotic/AI Approach to Ethics......Page 261
References......Page 262
Origins of Robotics......Page 264
Third Law......Page 265
History......Page 266
Definition......Page 267
Impact......Page 268
Asimov’s Experiments with the 1940 Laws......Page 270
Third Law......Page 278
The Increased Difficulty of Judgment......Page 279
Robot Paternalism......Page 280
Perceptual and Cognitive Apparatus......Page 281
Additional Implicit Laws......Page 282
Implications for Information Technologists......Page 284
The Procreation Law......Page 285
Recognition of Stakeholder Interests......Page 286
Blind Acceptance of Technological and Other Imperatives......Page 287
Human Opposition to Robots......Page 288
The Structuredness of Decision Making......Page 289
Risk Management......Page 290
Conclusions......Page 291
Isaac Asimov, 1920–1992......Page 292
References......Page 293
16 The Unacceptability of Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics as a Basis for Machine Ethics......Page 295
“The Bicentennial Man”......Page 296
Characteristic(s) Necessary to Have Moral Standing......Page 298
Why the Three Laws Are Unsatisfactory Even If Machines Don’t Have Moral Standing......Page 303
References......Page 305
Introduction......Page 307
Efforts to Build Computer Programs that Support or Model Ethical Reasoning......Page 308
Truth-Teller......Page 311
SIROCCO......Page 315
The Relationship between Truth-Teller and SIROCCO......Page 319
Lessons Learned......Page 320
Future Directions......Page 322
References......Page 323
Introduction......Page 326
Some Terminology......Page 327
Some Options with Respect to Learning......Page 328
Some Options with Respect to Normative Standing or Status......Page 329
Preliminary Analysis of the Answers to LQ and NQ......Page 330
Learning to Classify Moral Situations......Page 331
Establishing or Defending Normative Statuses......Page 338
Conclusion......Page 342
References......Page 343
Constraint Satisfaction Problems......Page 345
GOFAIR Meta-Assumptions......Page 346
A Robot in the World......Page 347
Classic Horizontal Architecture......Page 348
The Demise of GOFAIR......Page 349
Beyond GOFAIR to Soccer......Page 350
RoboCup......Page 351
From Sudoku to Soccer and Beyond......Page 352
From GOFAIR to Situated Agents......Page 353
Robots, Telerobots, Androids, and Cyborgs......Page 355
Helpful Robots......Page 357
Can We Trust Robots?......Page 358
Asimov’s Answers......Page 360
Robots as Situated Agents......Page 361
Dynamic Constraint Satisfaction......Page 362
Formal Methods for Constraint-Based Agents......Page 363
A Soccer Case Study with Prioritized Constraints......Page 364
Constraint-Based Agents in Constraint Nets......Page 366
Acknowledgments......Page 368
References......Page 369
Introduction......Page 371
Preliminaries......Page 372
Piaget’s View of Thinking......Page 373
From Piaget to Roboethics......Page 375
But Then Why Piaget’s Paradigm?......Page 376
Category Theory for Fifth-Stage Robots......Page 377
Demonstrations and Future Research......Page 379
References......Page 383
Introduction......Page 385
Actors, Agents, and Individuals in Heterogeneous Organizations......Page 386
ICT Actors in Heterogeneous Organizations......Page 388
The Ethical Consistency Problem (ECP)......Page 390
A Solution for the ECP......Page 394
First Step: The Definition of the Ethical Principle......Page 400
Second Step: Translate the GIP into an Ethical Requirement......Page 402
Third Step: Derive an Ethical Protocol from the GIP Ethical Requirement......Page 403
Third version of TP......Page 404
Conclusions......Page 405
References......Page 406
Introduction......Page 408
Prospective Logic Programming......Page 409
Abducibles......Page 411
The Trolley Problem......Page 412
The Double and Triple Effect......Page 415
Modeling Morality in ACORDA......Page 416
Modeling the Bystander Case......Page 417
Modeling the Footbridge Case......Page 418
Modeling the Loop Track Case......Page 419
Throwing the Switch and Shoving a Man......Page 421
Modeling the Drop Man Case......Page 423
Modeling the Collapse Bridge Case......Page 424
Modeling the Principles of Double and Triple Effect......Page 425
Running the Models in ACORDA......Page 428
Conclusions and Future Work......Page 429
References......Page 430
Introduction......Page 432
Moral Decision Making......Page 433
MoralDM......Page 434
Explanation Agent NLU......Page 436
Order of Magnitude Reasoning Module......Page 438
First-Principles Reasoning Module......Page 441
Analogical Reasoning Module......Page 442
Experiment 2......Page 444
Discussion......Page 445
Related Work......Page 446
Future Work......Page 447
Acknowledgments......Page 448
References......Page 449
24 Prototyping N-Reasons: A Computer Mediated Ethics Machine......Page 452
NERD: Surveys and Ethics......Page 453
N-Reasons......Page 454
Is N-Reasons Usefully Considered a Machine?......Page 456
References......Page 459
I, Robot and Utilitarianism......Page 461
Restricting Robot Reflection......Page 464
Why a Robot Should (Perhaps) Not Get a Life......Page 466
Robot-Robot Relations......Page 469
Acknowledgments......Page 472
References......Page 473
26 Prospects for a Kantian Machine......Page 474
Kantian Formalist Ethics......Page 475
A Machine-Computable Categorical Imperative......Page 476
Mere Consistency......Page 477
Commonsense Practical Reasoning......Page 479
Against Suicide......Page 481
Against False-Promising......Page 482
Coherency......Page 483
References......Page 485
27 A Prima Facie Duty Approach to Machine Ethics: Machine Learning of Features of Ethical Dilemmas, Prima Facie Duties, and Decision Principles through a Dialogue with Ethicists......Page 486
Bibliography......Page 502
Part V: Visions for Machine Ethics......Page 503
Introduction......Page 505
Introduction......Page 509
Automating Ethical Reasoning......Page 510
Dilemma 3......Page 511
Decision and Action......Page 512
Weakness 3......Page 513
Policy Issues......Page 514
Consistency......Page 515
Impartiality......Page 516
Implementation......Page 518
Conclusion......Page 520
References......Page 521
Stick-Built AI......Page 522
Stick-Built Rational AI......Page 523
Learning Rational AI......Page 524
The Black Box Fallacy......Page 525
The Evolution of Human Ethics......Page 527
Ethics......Page 528
Self-interest......Page 529
Knowledge......Page 530
Open Source Honesty......Page 531
The Moral Machine......Page 532
30 How Machines Might Help Us Achieve Breakthroughs in Ethical Theory and Inspire Us to Behave Better......Page 534
Introduction: Better than Human......Page 541
Moral Improvement: The Copernican Turn......Page 542
Morally Bounded Animals......Page 544
Human-Level Intelligence and Moral Machines......Page 546
References......Page 548