Low Intensity Breeding of Native Forest Trees in Argentina: Genetic Basis for their Domestication and Conservation

Contents
Chapter 1: Native Forests Claim for Breeding in Argentina: General Concepts and Their State
	1.1 Beginnings of Genetic Studies of Forest Tree Species Native to Argentina
	1.2 Main Forest Ecoregions of Argentina
		1.2.1 Alto Paraná Rainforest
		1.2.2 Yungas Rainforest
		1.2.3 Chaco Subtropical Dry Forest
		1.2.4 Sub-Antarctic Temperate Forest
		1.2.5 Espinal Xerophytic Forest
		1.2.6 Monte Xerophytic Scrubland
		1.2.7 Paraná Riverside Wetland Forest
	1.3 Native Forest Surface in Argentina
	1.4 Official Trade Statistics for Timber and Non-timber Products of Native Tree Species
	1.5 Regulations for the Conservation and Restoration of Native Forests and Promotion of Afforestation with Native Species
	1.6 International Commitments of Argentina, National Plan for the Restoration of Native Forests, and Certification of Sustainable Management of Forests and Plantations
	1.7 Domestication of Forest Tree Species
	1.8 Low-Intensity Breeding of Forest Tree Species
	1.9 Aim and Scope of the Present Contribution
	References
Part I: Temperate Subantarctic Forests
	Chapter 2: Temperate Subantarctic Forests: A Huge Natural Laboratory
		2.1 Generalities and Particularities of the Andean-Patagonian Forests
		2.2 Social Aspects
		2.3 The Main Tree Species of the Andean-Patagonian Forests of Argentina
		2.4 Shared Patterns in the Distribution of the Genetic Variation
		2.5 The Choice of Species for Breeding
		References
	Chapter 3: Raulí (Nothofagus alpina = N. nervosa): The Best Quality Hardwood in Patagonia
		3.1 General Features of Nothofagus alpina
		3.2 Genetic Structure: Patterns of Genetic Variation at Neutral Markers
			3.2.1 The Legacy of the Glacial Ages
			3.2.2 Recent Processes Shaping the Genetic Structure: Identifying Hotspots of Diversity
		3.3 Adaptive Genetic Variation: Patterns of Variation Among Populations at Quantitative Traits
		3.4 The Underground Diversity: Relevance of Mycorrhizas and Other Soil Fungi Associated to Raulí
			3.4.1 Intraspecific Variation of Ectomycorrhizal Fungal Communities in Raulí
			3.4.2 Other Soil Fungi Associated with Raulí and Its Ectomycorrhizas
			3.4.3 Concluding Remarks on the Relevance of Fungal Communities for Conservation and Domestication Programmes
		3.5 Domestication of Raulí: A Potentiality with a Long History
		3.6 Building a Breeding Strategy for Raulí in Argentina
		3.7 Definition of Genetic Zones Based on Genetic Markers
		3.8 Conservation and Management of Raulí Forests in Argentina
		References
	Chapter 4: Roble pellín (Nothofagus obliqua): A Southern Beech with a Restricted Distribution Area But a Wide Environmental Range in Argentina
		4.1 Nothofagus obliqua Forests in Argentina
			4.1.1 Species Characteristics and Natural Distribution Range
			4.1.2 Hybridisation Processes
		4.2 Genetic Variation Patterns Based on Neutral Genetic Markers
			4.2.1 Inference of Past Demographic Changes: The Impact of the Pleistocene Glaciations
			4.2.2 Level of Genetic Diversity as an Indicator for Conservation
			4.2.3 Genetic Zones as Seed Sources for Breeding and Restoration
		4.3 Quantitative Genetic Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity
			4.3.1 Seed and Germination Analyses
			4.3.2 Survival, Growth and Morphological Seedling Traits
			4.3.3 Phenological Characters
			4.3.4 Resilience Against Eventual Damages
			4.3.5 Some Conclusions Based on Quantitative Genetic Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity Studies
		4.4 On the Way to Domesticate Roble pellín
		4.5 First Steps Towards Breeding of Roble pellín in Argentina
		4.6 Intraspecific and Interspecific Controlled Crossings of N. obliqua
			4.6.1 Flower Topology in N. obliqua
			4.6.2 Flower Phenology
			4.6.3 Test of Manual Pollinations
		4.7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 5: Nothofagus pumilio and N. antarctica: The Most Widely Distributed and Cold-Tolerant Southern Beeches in Patagonia
		5.1 Main Characteristics, Ecological Features, and Distributional Ranges
		5.2 Phylogeography: Inspecting Nothofagus Evolutionary History Through Chloroplast DNA
		5.3 Genetic Structure at Nuclear Markers Across Species Ranges
			5.3.1 Latitudinal Trends, Species Admixture, and the Identification of a Contact Zone
			5.3.2 Impact of Selective Logging on Patterns of Genetic Diversity: A Case Study in Nothofagus pumilio
		5.4 Genetic Zones: On How Molecular Tools Can Contribute to the Conservation and Management of Forest Resources
		5.5 Adaptive Genetic Variation of N. pumilio: Assessment of Juvenile Traits in Common Garden Experiments
			5.5.1 In Situ Geographic Variation
			5.5.2 Variation Among Populations in Common Garden Trials
			5.5.3 Genetic Variation by Means of Progeny Trials
		5.6 Domestication and Low-Intensity Breeding Strategies
			5.6.1 First Steps in N. antarctica
			5.6.2 First Steps in N. pumilio
		References
	Chapter 6: Patagonian Cypress (Austrocedrus chilensis): The Cedarwood of the Emblematic Architecture of North Patagonia
		6.1 Characteristics of Patagonian Cypress and Traditional Uses for Its Wood
		6.2 Geographic Patterns of Neutral Genetic Variation
		6.3 Quantitative Genetic Variation in Key Adaptive Juvenile Traits
			6.3.1 Quantitative Genetic Variation at the Regional Scale
			6.3.2 Variation Between Humid and Xeric Populations
			6.3.3 Variation Along the Arid Marginal Edge
		6.4 First Definition of Provenance Regions for a Forest Tree Species in Argentina
		6.5 Domestication and Breeding Strategy
		References
	Chapter 7: Araucaria araucana and Salix humboldtiana: Two Species Highly Appreciated by the Society with Domestication Potential
		7.1 Araucaria araucana (Pewen): The Sacred Tree of the Mapuche Nation
			7.1.1 Introduction
			7.1.2 Distribution and Ecology
			7.1.3 Landscape Genetic Structure: Fragmentation Matters
			7.1.4 Adaptive Genetic Variation
			7.1.5 Restoration, Conservation and Breeding
		7.2 Salix humboldtiana: A Very Ancient Willow and the Only Native to Argentina
			7.2.1 An Ancient Species with a Huge Natural Distribution Area
			7.2.2 The Main Threats to Its Conservation
			7.2.3 Landscape Genetic Structure
			7.2.4 First Steps Towards a Breeding programme
				7.2.4.1 Launching of a Participatory Genetic Rescue programme
		References
Part II: Subtropical Dry Forests
	Chapter 8: Subtropical Dry Forests: The Main Forest Ecoregion of Argentina
		8.1 Main Physiographic and Physiognomic Features of the Argentine Chaco
		8.2 Chaco and Deforestation: Two Words That Have Become Synonymous in the Last Two Decades
		8.3 The Role of Trees in the Primary Production of the Chaco
		8.4 Agrobusiness: The New Productive Paradigm in the Chaco and Its Social Consequences
		8.5 The Need for a New Tree-Centered Production Paradigm
			8.5.1 Red Quebrachos: Schinopsis spp. (Anacardiaceae)
			8.5.2 Aspidosperma Quebracho-Blanco (Apocynaceae)
			8.5.3 Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Fabaceae)
			8.5.4 Caesalpinia Paraguariensis (Fabaceae)
			8.5.5 Handroanthus Heptaphyllus (Bignoniaceae)
			8.5.6 Ziziphus mistol (Rhamnaceae)
		References
	Chapter 9: Genetic Variation Patterns of “Algarrobos” from the “Great American Chaco” (Prosopis alba, P. nigra, P. hassleri, P. fiebrigii, P. ruscifolia, P. chilensis, and P. flexuosa)
		9.1 Morphological Analyses as a First Approach to the Study of the Algarrobos’ Genetic Resources in the Chaco Region
		9.2 Variability and Genetic Differentiation Through Isozyme Analysis
		9.3 Natural Interspecific Hybridization Processes Evaluated Through Morphological Traits and Molecular Markers
			9.3.1 Morphological and Molecular Characterization of a Hybrid Zone between Prosopis alba and P. nigra in the Chaco Region of Northwestern Argentina
			9.3.2 Genetic and Morphometric Markers are Able to Differentiate Three Morphotypes Belonging to Section Algarobia of Genus Prosopis
			9.3.3 Morphological and Genetic Differentiation of Disjunct Prosopis chilensis Populations across its Distribution Range
			9.3.4 Genetic-Adaptive Studies in Populations of Prosopis alba
		9.4 Estimation of Mating System and Pollen Dispersal Parameters
		9.5 Phenological Analysis of a Stand and Its Application in a Hybrid Swarm of Prosopis spp.
		References
	Chapter 10: Genetic Breeding of Prosopis Species from the “Great American Chaco”
		10.1 Use and Domestication of “Algarrobos”: A Set of Multipurpose Tree Species
		10.2 Low-Intensity Breeding
		10.3 High-Intensity Breeding
		10.4 Vegetative Propagation: A Useful Tool for Genetic Improvement
		10.5 Beneficial Microorganisms
			10.5.1 Rhizobacteria for P. alba Cultivation
			10.5.2 Mycorrhizae for Prosopis alba
		References
	Chapter 11: Species Without Current Breeding Relevance But High Economic Value: Acacia caven, Acacia aroma, Acacia visco, Prosopis affinis, Prosopis caldenia and Gonopterodendron sarmientoi
		11.1 Botanical, Ecological and Usage Features
		11.2 Genetic Diversity by Means of Molecular Markers
		11.3 Mating System
		11.4 Population Structure and Landscape Genetic Structure
		11.5 Recommendations for Management and Conservation Programmes
		References
Part III: Subtropical Rainforests
	Chapter 12: Subtropical Rainforests: The Yungas and the Alto Paraná Rainforest
		12.1 The Yungas Rainforest: Geographical Location, Logging Background, Conservation Status, and Trade
		12.2 Alto Paraná Rainforest: Geographical Location, Logging Background, and Conservation Status
		12.3 General Considerations from a Breeding Point of View for a Sustainable Management of the Argentinean Rainforests
		References
	Chapter 13: Patterns of Neutral Genetic Variation for High-Value Cedar Species from the Subtropical Rainforests of Argentina
		13.1 The Genus Cedrela in Argentina: Distribution Area, Ecological Niches, and the Current State of Its Genetic Resources
		13.2 Conservation and Breeding Program of Cedrela in Argentina: Molecular Genetic Bases
			13.2.1 Molecular Genetic Variability of Cedrela angustifolia in the Yungas
				13.2.1.1 Genetic Diversity and Differentiation
				13.2.1.2 Genetic Variation and Latitude
				13.2.1.3 Genetic Variation and Anthropogenic Disturbance
			13.2.2 Molecular Genetic Variability of Cedrela balansae in the Yungas
			13.2.3 Molecular Evidence of Hybrid Zones of Cedrela in the Yungas
				13.2.3.1 Population Structure of Cedrela in the Yungas
				13.2.3.2 Phylogenetic Relationships of Cedrela Species from the Yungas
				13.2.3.3 Natural Hybridization Between C. balansae and C. saltensis in the Yungas
				13.2.3.4 Delimitation of Hybrid Zones of C. balansae and C. saltensis in the Yungas
			13.2.4 Clonal Seed Orchards of Cedrela balansae and Cedrela angustifolia: Molecular Genetic Bases
			13.2.5 Genetic Variability of Cedrela fissilis Populations in the Alto Paraná Rainforest
		13.3 Contributions from Research to Conservation and Use of Cedrela Genetic Resources in Argentina
		References
	Chapter 14: Breeding Strategy for the Cedrela Genus in Argentina
		14.1 Domestication of Cedrela sp. in Argentina
		14.2 A Tiny Enemy Threatens the Cultivation of Cedrela sp.
		14.3 Variation in Quantitative Traits
		14.4 First Steps Toward the Breeding of the Genus in Argentina
		References
	Chapter 15: Paraná Pine (Araucaria angustifolia): The Most Planted Native Forest Tree Species in Argentina
		15.1 Natural Distribution in Argentina: The Western Extreme of a Large Area
		15.2 Uses and Conservation Status of the Natural Forests of Araucaria angustifolia
		15.3 The Historical Use of Araucaria angustifolia in Productive Plantations
		15.4 Reproductive Biology of Araucaria angustifolia
			15.4.1 Limitations for the Pollination and Seed Formation
			15.4.2 Seed Production and Conservation of A. angustifolia’s Recalcitrant Seeds
		15.5 Genetic Variability of Natural Populations Estimated by AFLP Markers
			15.5.1 The Outstanding Case of a Multi-provenance Plantation Over 70 Years Old
		15.6 Breeding and Conservation Strategy for Araucaria angustifolia
			15.6.1 First Steps Toward Improvement of the Species in Brazil
			15.6.2 Provenance Tests in Argentina and Genetic Variation of Quantitative Traits
			15.6.3 Base, Selected, Breeding, and Propagation Populations for an Incipient Improvement Program in Argentina
		15.7 Concerns and Actions for Conservation
		References
	Chapter 16: Peteribí (Cordia trichotoma), Lapacho Rosado (Handroanthus impetiginosus), and Cebil Colorado (Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil): Three Valuable Species with Incipient Breeding Programs
		16.1 General Considerations and Natural Ranges of the Species in Argentina
		16.2 Cordia trichotoma
			16.2.1 Preliminary Molecular Analyses
			16.2.2 Domestication Experiences
			16.2.3 An Incipient Breeding Program
		16.3 Handroanthus impetiginosus
			16.3.1 Preliminary Characterization of Its Genetic Variability
			16.3.2 Domestication Experience and Breeding Strategy
		16.4 Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil
			16.4.1 Phenotypic and Genetic Studies: Development of Specific nuSSRs and Spatial Distribution of Phenotypic and Molecular Variability
			16.4.2 Domestication Potential of Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil in Argentina
		16.5 Breeding and Conservation Programs: Future Steps
		References
Part IV: New Tools and Final Considerations
	Chapter 17: Application of High-Throughput Sequencing Technologies in Native Forest Tree Species in Argentina: Implications for Breeding
		17.1 High-Throughput Sequencing Technologies
		17.2 Applications of HTS Technologies on Forest Tree Species
		17.3 Genomic Strategies to Accelerate Tree Breeding
			17.3.1 Genome-Wide Association Studies
			17.3.2 Genomic Selection
		17.4 HTS Technologies Applied to Argentina’s Native Tree Species
			17.4.1 Transcriptome and Genome Sequencing of Nothofagus Species
			17.4.2 Transcriptome Sequencing of Prosopis alba
			17.4.3 Transcriptome Sequencing of Cedrela balansae
		17.5 Ongoing HTS Projects
			17.5.1 Transcriptome Sequencing of Austrocedrus chilensis, Handroanthus impetiginosus and Cordia trichotoma
			17.5.2 Genome Sequencing of Austrocedrus chilensis
			17.5.3 Transcriptome Sequencing of Nothofagus alpina and N. obliqua Under Water Stress Conditions
		17.6 Current and Future Genetic Studies on Native Forest Tree Species and Implications for Breeding
		References
	Chapter 18: Questions, Perspectives and Final Considerations of Planting Native Species Under the Climate Change Conditioning
		18.1 Genetic Considerations of Planting Native Species: Maladaptation and Genetic Contamination
		18.2 Should We Think About Productivity or the Preservation of Genetic Identity?
		18.3 Climate Change in Argentina
		18.4 Shifting of the Natural Range of Forest Tree Species Associated to Climate Change Forecast
		18.5 Assisted Migration: Breeding for the Present or for the Future Climate?
		References
Index