Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland

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Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland
Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutriti ...
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1 - Plants
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Plant groups
		1.2.1 Annuals
		1.2.2 Biennials
		1.2.3 Perennials
		1.2.4 Monocotyledons versus dicotyledons
	1.3 Plant structure
		1.3.1 The root system
			1.3.1.1 The tap root or primary system
			1.3.1.2 The adventitious root system
			1.3.1.3 Root structure
		1.3.2 The stem
			1.3.2.1 Modified stems
		1.3.3 The leaf
			1.3.3.1 Modified leaves
		1.3.4 The inflorescence
		1.3.5 The flower
	1.4 Plant physiology
		1.4.1 Transpiration
		1.4.2 Conduction
		1.4.3 Translocation
		1.4.4 Osmosis
		1.4.5 Uptake of water
		1.4.6 Uptake of nutrients
		1.4.7 Photosynthesis
		1.4.8 Respiration
		1.4.9 Reproduction
			1.4.9.1 Pollination
			1.4.9.2 Fertilisation
			1.4.9.3 Asexual reproduction
	1.5 Seeds
		1.5.1 Dicotyledon
		1.5.2 Monocotyledon
		1.5.3 Germination
		1.5.4 Germination of the bean—the dicotyledon
		1.5.5 Germination of wheat—the monocotyledon
	1.6 Plant requirements
		1.6.1 Warmth
		1.6.2 Light
		1.6.3 Water
		1.6.4 Carbon dioxide
		1.6.5 Oxygen
		1.6.6 Chemical elements required by plants
	1.7 Legumes and nitrogen fixation
	1.8 The control of plant growth and development
		1.8.1 Plant hormones
		1.8.2 Phototropism
		1.8.3 Geotropism
		1.8.4 Hydrotropism
		1.8.5 Thigmotropism
		1.8.6 The effect of light
			1.8.6.1 Short day (long night) plants
			1.8.6.2 Long day (short night) plants
			1.8.6.3 Day neutral plants
	1.9 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
2 - Climate and weather
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Solar radiation
	2.3 Rainfall
	2.4 Air and soil temperature
	2.5 Effect of weather on soils and crops
	2.6 Human caused climate change
	2.7 Future climate change predictions
	2.8 Impact of climate change on crop production
	2.9 Sources of agriculture emissions
	2.10 Potential for cropping systems to achieve net zero carbon emissions
	2.11 Summary
	2.12 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
3 - Soil health and management
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 Soil health
		3.1.2 Soil characteristics
	3.2 Soil formation
		3.2.1 Parent rock materials
		3.2.2 Some other soil forming deposits
		3.2.3 Weathering of rocks
		3.2.4 Other factors in soil formation
	3.3 Soil composition and properties
		3.3.1 Mineral matter and soil texture
		3.3.2 Soil structure
		3.3.3 Organic matter
		3.3.4 Water in the soil
		3.3.5 Soil aeration
		3.3.6 Soil microorganisms (microflora and microfauna)
		3.3.7 Soil meso- and macrofauna
	3.4 Farming and managing different soil types
		3.4.1 Clay soils
			3.4.1.1 Characteristics
			3.4.1.2 Management
			3.4.1.3 Cropping
		3.4.2 Sandy soils
			3.4.2.1 Characteristics
			3.4.2.2 Management
			3.4.2.3 Cropping
		3.4.3 Loams
			3.4.3.1 Characteristics
			3.4.3.2 Management
			3.4.3.3 Cropping
		3.4.4 Silty soils
			3.4.4.1 Characteristics
			3.4.4.2 Management
			3.4.4.3 Cropping
		3.4.5 Chalk and limestone soils
			3.4.5.1 Characteristics
			3.4.5.2 Management
			3.4.5.3 Cropping
		3.4.6 Peat and peaty soils
			3.4.6.1 Characteristics
			3.4.6.2 Management
			3.4.6.3 Cropping
	3.5 Soil fertility and productivity
		3.5.1 Soil erosion and runoff
			3.5.1.1 Wind erosion and control
			3.5.1.2 Water erosion, runoff and control
		3.5.2 Soil acidity and liming
			3.5.2.1 pH, acidity and cropping
			3.5.2.2 Lime requirement and its benefits
			3.5.2.3 Materials commonly used for liming soils
			3.5.2.4 Lime application, costs and losses
	3.6 Evaluating soil health on the farm
	3.7 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
4 - Fertilisers and manures
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Crop nutrient requirements
	4.3 Major nutrients
		4.3.1 Nitrogen
			4.3.1.1 Soil nitrogen
			4.3.1.2 Loss of nitrogen
		4.3.2 Phosphorus
			4.3.2.1 Soil phosphorus
			4.3.2.2 Loss of phosphorus
		4.3.3 Potassium
			4.3.3.1 Soil potassium
		4.3.4 Sulphur, magnesium and calcium
	4.4 Micronutrients (trace elements)
	4.4 Micronutrients (trace elements)
	4.5 Assessment of soil nutrient content
	4.6 Assessment of crop nutrient content
	4.7 Terminology and formulation of fertiliser products
	4.8 Fertiliser products and nutrient supply
		4.8.1 Nitrogen fertilisers
		4.8.2 Phosphorus fertilisers
		4.8.3 Potassium fertilisers
		4.8.4 Sulphur fertilisers
		4.8.5 Magnesium fertilisers
	4.9 Fertilisers and nutrient supply
		4.9.1 Plant nutrient requirements
		4.9.2 Nutrient cost comparison
	4.10 Fluid (liquid) fertilisers
		4.10.1 Solutions
		4.10.2 Suspensions
		4.10.3 ‘Distressed’ fertiliser
	4.11 Application of fertilisers
	4.12 Organic materials
		4.12.1 Effective nutrient utilisation
		4.12.2 Livestock manures
			4.12.2.1 Farmyard manure (FYM)
			4.12.2.2 Poultry manure
			4.12.2.3 Slurry and liquid manure
		4.12.3 Other organic materials
			4.12.3.1 Sewage sludge (biosolids)
			4.12.3.2 Digestate
			4.12.3.3 Compost
			4.12.3.4 Waste-derived materials
			4.12.3.5 Cereal straw
			4.12.3.6 Seaweed
	4.13 Fertilisers, organic materials and the environment
	4.14 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
5 - Weeds of farm crops
	5.1 The impact of weeds
		5.1.1 Success of plants as weeds
			5.1.1.1 Seed production
			5.1.1.2 Seed spread
			5.1.1.3 Time of germination
			5.1.1.4 Same family as crop
			5.1.1.5 Weed competitiveness
		5.1.2 Assessing weed problems in the field
		5.1.3 Weeds and biodiversity
	5.2 Weed types and identification
		5.2.1 Grass weeds
			5.2.1.1 Other grass weeds
		5.2.2 Broad-leaved weeds
	5.3 Management of weeds: general
		5.3.1 Methods of weed management
		5.3.2 Herbicides—modes of action
		5.3.3 Herbicide choice
	5.4 Herbicide resistance
		5.4.1 Mechanisms of herbicide resistance
		5.4.2 Management of herbicide resistant weeds
	5.5 Spraying with herbicides: precautions
	5.6 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
6 - Diseases of farm crops
	6.1 Introduction to plant diseases and disorders
		6.1.1 Key terminology
	6.2 Disease symptoms
	6.3 Some important types of plant pathogens
		6.3.1 Fungi
			6.3.1.1 Fungal infection
			6.3.1.2 Reproduction
			6.3.1.3 Fungal survival and dispersal
		6.3.2 Oomycetes (water moulds)
		6.3.3 Plasmodiophoromycetes (slime moulds)
		6.3.4 Viruses
		6.3.5 Bacteria
	6.4 Abiotic disorders
		6.4.1 Lack of essential plant foods (mineral/nutrient deficiency)
		6.4.2 Physiological diseases (stress)
		6.4.3 Herbicide damage
	6.5 The control of plant diseases
		6.5.1 Non-chemical methods of control
		6.5.2 Chemical control—fungicides
			6.5.2.1 Protectant fungicides
			6.5.2.2 Systemic fungicides
	6.6 Fungicide resistance
	6.7 Management of specific diseases of field crops
	6.8 Key points
	6.8 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
7 - Pests
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Invertebrate pests
		7.2.1 Insects
		7.2.2 Nematodes (eelworms)
		7.2.3 Molluscs
		7.2.4 Mites
	7.3 Vertebrate crop pests
		7.3.1 Birds
		7.3.2 Mammals
	7.4 Damage types
	7.5 Integrated pest management (IPM)
		7.5.1 Cultural control
		7.5.2 Biological control
		7.5.3 Biopesticides
		7.5.4 Chemical control
	7.6 Pesticide classification
		7.6.1 Insecticides
		7.6.2 Nematicides
		7.6.3 Molluscicides
		7.6.4 Acaricides
		7.6.5 Pesticide resistance
	7.7 Key points
	7.7 Key points
	7.7 Key points
	7.7 Key points
	7.7 Key points
	7.7 Key points
	7.7 Key points
	7.7 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
8 - Sustainable crop production
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Crop production techniques
		8.2.1 Drainage
			8.2.1.1 Ditches and open drains
			8.2.1.2 Underground drains
			8.2.1.3 Underground piped drains
			8.2.1.4 Underground drains—mole drainage
		8.2.2 Seedbed preparation
			8.2.2.1 Sub-surface restructuring
			8.2.2.2 Inversion tillage (ploughing)
			8.2.2.3 Non-inversion (minimum tillage)
			8.2.2.4 Strip-tillage
			8.2.2.5 Direct drilling
		8.2.3 Sowing
		8.2.4 Crop rotations
		8.2.5 The use of cover cropping and companion cropping in rotations
		8.2.6 Integrated pest management
		8.2.7 Crop nutrition
		8.2.8 Irrigation
			8.2.8.1 Soil water availability
			8.2.8.2 Timing and sources of irrigation
			8.2.8.3 Application of irrigation
	8.3 Drivers of change in crop production
		8.3.1 UK agricultural policy
		8.3.2 Encouraging biodiversity
		8.3.3 Protection of soils
		8.3.4 Protection of water
		8.3.5 Climate change and ‘net zero’
			8.3.5.1 Reducing emissions from arable agriculture
		8.3.6 Food safety and security
	8.4 Whole farm approaches to sustainability
		8.4.1 Regenerative farming
		8.4.2 Agroforestry
		8.4.3 Integrating livestock into arable rotations
	8.5 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
9 - Precision crop production
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Obtaining georeferenced data
		9.2.1 Remote sensing
		9.2.2 Machine and field based sensors
			9.2.2.1 Crop sensing
			9.2.2.2 Soil sensors
			9.2.2.3 Yield monitors
			9.2.2.4 Field walking
			9.2.2.5 Weather
	9.3 Storing and analysing georeferenced data
	9.4 Using georeferenced data
		9.4.1 Auto-steering and controlled traffic farming
		9.4.2 Controlled traffic farming
		9.4.3 Financial
		9.4.4 Variable rate sowing
		9.4.5 Variable rate nutrient application
		9.4.6 Variable rate pesticide application
		9.4.7 Environmental
	9.5 Autonomous agriculture
	9.6 Barriers to the adoption of precision farming
	9.7 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
10 - Organic crop husbandry
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Achieving organic status
		10.2.1 UK organic standards
		10.2.2 The conversion period
	10.3 Rotations
	10.4 Soil and plant nutrition
		10.4.1 Inorganic fertilisers
		10.4.2 Organic manures
		10.4.3 Nitrogen sources
	10.5 Weed control
		10.5.1 Rotations and cropping
		10.5.2 Variety selection
		10.5.3 Time of sowing
		10.5.4 Seed rates and crop density
		10.5.5 Cultivations
		10.5.6 Flame or thermal weeding
		10.5.7 Other methods of weed control
	10.6 Disease control
	10.7 Pest control
	10.8 Crop management examples
		10.8.1 Winter wheat
		10.8.2 Potatoes
		10.8.3 Field vegetables, e.g., cabbage
	10.9 Other systems
	10.10 Organic farming and the environment
	10.11 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
11 - Plant breeding and seed production
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Principles of genetics
		11.1.2 A brief history of plant breeding
	11.2 Plant breeding methods
		11.2.1 Conventional plant breeding
		11.2.2 Molecular markers
		11.2.3 Hybrid varieties
		11.2.4 Genetic modification
		11.2.5 New breeding technologies
		11.2.6 Pre-breeding and plant genetic resources
	11.3 Plant breeding targets
		11.3.1 Breeding for yield
		11.3.2 Breeding for quality
		11.3.3 Breeding for disease and pest resistance and tolerance
		11.3.4 Breeding forage crops
		11.3.5 Breeding potatoes and sugar beet
		11.3.6 Breeding fresh produce
	11.4 Seed quality
		11.4.1 Variety registration and seed certification
		11.4.2 Seed production
		11.4.3 Farm-saved seed
	11.5 Breeding for organic, agroecology and regenerative agriculture
	11.6 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
12 - World cropping systems
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Global demand
	12.3 Efficiency of production
	12.4 Global trends
	12.5 Climatic requirements
	12.6 Land use
	12.7 Threats to global production - losses to yield attainment
	12.8 Post-harvest losses
	12.9 Most important crops grown globally
		12.9.1 Cereals (crops grown principally for carbohydrates and as an energy source)
			12.9.1.1 Wheat
			12.9.1.2 Maize
			12.9.1.3 Rice
			12.9.1.4 Barley
			12.9.1.5 Sorghum
			12.9.1.6 Millet
			12.9.1.7 Rye
	12.10 Pulses: crops grown primarily for protein
		12.10.1 Soybeans
	12.11 Oil seeds: crops grown primarily for oil
	12.12 Crops grown primarily for export: cash crops
		12.12.1 Tea, coffee and cocoa
		12.12.2 Vanilla
		12.12.3 Sugar cane and sugar beet production
	12.13 Future challenges for global crop production
	12.14 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
13 - Cereals
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Cereal identification
		13.1.2 Cereal growth and development
		13.1.3 Components of yield in cereals
		13.1.4 Grain quality in cereals
		13.1.5 Harvesting
		13.1.6 Grain-drying
		13.1.7 Grain storage
			13.1.7.1 Dry grain
			13.1.7.2 Moist grain
		13.1.8 Cereal straw
	13.2 Wheat
		13.2.1 Markets and quality
			13.2.1.1 Milling wheat
			13.2.1.2 Animal feed
			13.2.1.3 Export
			13.2.1.4 Bioethanol
		13.2.2 Wheat agronomy
			13.2.2.1 Site selection
			13.2.2.2 Rotation
			13.2.2.3 Varieties
			13.2.2.4 Seed treatment
			13.2.2.5 Seedbed preparation
			13.2.2.6 Time of sowing
			13.2.2.7 Seed rates and plant population
			13.2.2.8 Crop nutrition
			13.2.2.9 Pests
			13.2.2.10 Diseases
			13.2.2.11 Weeds
			13.2.2.12 Plant growth regulators
			13.2.2.13 Typical crop protection programme for winter wheat
			13.2.2.14 Harvesting
			13.2.2.15 Yield
	13.3 Durum wheat
		13.3.1 Durum wheat agronomy
			13.3.1.1 Soils and climate
			13.3.1.2 Seedbeds and sowing
			13.3.1.3 Time of sowing
			13.3.1.4 Varieties
			13.3.1.5 Seed rates
			13.3.1.6 Fertilisers
			13.3.1.7 Crop protection
			13.3.1.8 Harvesting
			13.3.1.9 Yield
	13.4 Barley
		13.4.1 Markets and quality
			13.4.1.1 Animal feed
			13.4.1.2 Malting
		13.4.2 Barley agronomy
			13.4.2.1 Site selection
			13.4.2.2 Rotation
			13.4.2.3 Varieties
			13.4.2.4 Seed treatment
			13.4.2.5 Seedbed preparation
			13.4.2.6 Time of sowing
			13.4.2.7 Seed rates and plant population
			13.4.2.8 Crop nutrition
			13.4.2.9 Pests
			13.4.2.10 Diseases
			13.4.2.11 Weeds
			13.4.2.12 Plant growth regulators
			13.4.2.13 Typical crop protection programme for barley
			13.4.2.14 Harvesting
			13.4.2.15 Yield
	13.5 Oats
		13.5.1 Oat agronomy
			13.5.1.1 Site selection
			13.5.1.2 Rotation
			13.5.1.3 Varieties
			13.5.1.4 Seed treatments
			13.5.1.5 Seedbed preparation
			13.5.1.6 Time of sowing
			13.5.1.7 Seed rates and plant population
			13.5.1.8 Crop nutrition
			13.5.1.9 Micronutrients
			13.5.1.10 Pests
			13.5.1.11 Diseases
			13.5.1.12 Weeds
			13.5.1.13 Growth regulators
			13.5.1.14 Harvesting
			13.5.1.15 Yield
	13.6 Rye
		13.6.1 Rye agronomy
			13.6.1.1 Site selection
			13.6.1.2 Rotation
			13.6.1.3 Varieties
			13.6.1.4 Seed treatments
			13.6.1.5 Seedbeds preparation
			13.6.1.6 Time of sowing
			13.6.1.7 Seed rate
			13.6.1.8 Crop nutrition
			13.6.1.9 Crop protection
			13.6.1.10 Harvesting
			13.6.1.11 Yield
	13.7 Triticale
		13.7.1 Triticale agronomy
			13.7.1.1 Site selection
			13.7.1.2 Rotation
			13.7.1.3 Varieties
			13.7.1.4 Seedbed preparation
			13.7.1.5 Seed rate
			13.7.1.6 Time of sowing
			13.7.1.7 Crop nutrition
			13.7.1.8 Crop protection
			13.7.1.9 Harvesting
			13.7.1.10 Yield
	13.8 Maize for grain
	13.9 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
14 - Oilseeds and pulses
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Oilseed rape
		14.2.1 Site selection
		14.2.2 Rotation
		14.2.3 Varieties
		14.2.4 Seed treatment
		14.2.5 Seedbed preparation
		14.2.6 Time of sowing
		14.2.7 Seed rates and plant population
		14.2.8 Crop development
		14.2.9 Fertilisers
		14.2.10 Crop protection
			14.2.10.1 Pests
			14.2.10.2 Diseases
			14.2.10.3 Weeds
			14.2.10.4 Typical crop protection programme for winter oilseed rape
		14.2.11 Growth regulation
		14.2.12 Harvesting
		14.2.13 Drying and storage
		14.2.14 Yield
	14.3 Linseed
		14.3.1 Site selection
		14.3.2 Rotation
		14.3.3 Varieties
		14.3.4 Seed treatment
		14.3.5 Seedbed preparation
		14.3.6 Time of sowing
		14.3.7 Seed rates and plant population
		14.3.8 Crop development
		14.3.9 Fertilisers
		14.3.10 Crop protection
			14.3.10.1 Pests
			14.3.10.2 Diseases
			14.3.10.3 Weeds
		14.3.11 Harvesting
		14.3.12 Drying and storage
		14.3.13 Yield
	14.4 Sunflowers
	14.5 Soya beans
	14.6 Combinable pulses
		14.6.1 Field beans
			14.6.1.1 Site selection
			14.6.1.2 Rotation
			14.6.1.3 Varieties
			14.6.1.4 Seed treatment
			14.6.1.5 Seedbed preparation
			14.6.1.6 Time of sowing
			14.6.1.7 Seed rates
			14.6.1.8 Crop development
			14.6.1.9 Fertilisers
			14.6.1.10 Crop protection
				14.6.1.10.1 Pests
				14.6.1.10.2 Diseases
				14.6.1.10.3 Weeds
				14.6.1.10.4 Typical crop protection programme for spring field beans
			14.6.1.11 Harvesting
			14.6.1.12 Drying and storage
			14.6.1.13 Yield
		14.6.2 Dry harvested peas
			14.6.2.1 Types of peas
				14.6.2.1.1 White flowered
				14.6.2.1.2 Coloured flowered
			14.6.2.2 Site selection
			14.6.2.3 Rotation
			14.6.2.4 Varieties
			14.6.2.5 Seed treatment
			14.6.2.6 Seedbed preparation
			14.6.2.7 Time of sowing
			14.6.2.8 Seed rates
			14.6.2.9 Crop development
			14.6.2.10 Fertilisers
			14.6.2.11 Crop protection
				14.6.2.11.1 Pests
				14.6.2.11.2 Diseases
				14.6.2.11.3 Weeds
			14.6.2.12 Harvesting
			14.6.2.13 Drying and storage
			14.6.2.14 Yield
		14.6.3 Lupins
	14.7 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
15 - Root crops
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Potatoes
		15.2.1 Potato marketing and the supply chain
		15.2.2 Site selection
		15.2.3 Rotation
		15.2.4 Varieties
		15.2.5 Seed treatment
		15.2.6 Crop advancement – chitting (breaking dormancy)
		15.2.7 Seedbed preparation
		15.2.8 Timing of cultivations and planting
		15.2.9 Seed rates and seed spacing
		15.2.10 Planting
		15.2.11 Fertiliser
		15.2.12 Crop development
		15.2.13 Crop protection – pests (see chapter 7)
		15.2.14 Weed control
			15.2.14.1 Pre-planting
			15.2.14.2 Pre-emergence of potato shoots
			15.2.14.3 Post-emergence of potato shoots
		15.2.15 Haulm (leaves and stems) destruction
		15.2.16 Disease control (see also Chapter 6)
			15.2.16.1 Blight - Phytophthora infestans
		15.2.17 Physiological disorders
		15.2.18 Irrigation
		15.2.19 Harvesting
		15.2.20 Storage
		15.2.21 Grading
		15.2.22 Yield
	15.3 Sugar beet
		15.3.1 Soils and climate
		15.3.2 Place in rotation
		15.3.3 Seedbed preparation
		15.3.4 Varieties
		15.3.5 Manures and fertilisers
			15.3.5.1 Nitrogen
			15.3.5.2 Phosphate, potassium and magnesium
			15.3.5.3 Sodium
			15.3.5.4 Sulphur
			15.3.5.5 Manganese and boron
			15.3.5.6 Lime and pH
		15.3.6 Seeds and sowing
			15.3.6.1 Seed rate
			15.3.6.2 Timing of sowing
			15.3.6.3 Precision drilling
			15.3.6.4 Prevention of wind damage
		15.3.7 Weed control
		15.3.8 Disease & pest control
			15.3.8.1 Disease control
			15.3.8.2 Pest control (see Chapter 7)
		15.3.9 Irrigation
		15.3.10 Weed beet
		15.3.11 Harvesting
		15.3.12 Storage
		15.3.13 Yield
	15.4 Key points
		Potatoes
		Sugar beet
	Sources of further information and advice
16 - Energy and industrial crops
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 Global drivers
		16.1.2 United Kingdom policy
			16.1.2.1 Biofuels
			16.1.2.2 Biomass
			16.1.2.3 Anaerobic digestion
	16.2 Energy crops
		16.2.1 Specific crops: miscanthus
			16.2.1.1 Growth cycle
				Where can it be grown?
				Planting
				Nutrition
			16.2.1.2 Crop protection
			16.2.1.3 Harvest and storage
		16.2.2 Short rotation coppice
			16.2.2.1 Growth cycle
				Where can it be grown?
				Planting
				Nutrition
			16.2.2.2 Crop protection
			16.2.2.3 Harvest and storage
		16.2.3 Wetland crops
		16.2.4 Crops for anaerobic digestion (AD)
		16.2.5 Woodland biomass
		16.2.6 Liquid biofuel crops
	16.3 Industrial crops
		16.3.1 Lubricant oil crops
		16.3.2 Fibre crops
			16.3.2.1 Hemp (Cannabis sativa)
			16.3.2.2 Flax (Linum usitatissimum)
		16.3.3 Pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals, essential oils and cosmetics
		16.3.4 Carbohydrate crops
	16.4 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
17 - Fresh produce crops
	17.1 Growing fresh produce crops
		17.1.1 Value and volume
		17.1.2 Assurance and food safety
		17.1.3 Use of integrated pest management (IPM)
		17.1.4 Protected production systems
		17.1.5 Automation
			17.1.5.1 Transplanting
			17.1.5.2 Weeding
			17.1.5.3 Harvesting
	17.2 Fresh peas
		17.2.1 Soils and climate
		17.2.2 Cultivations
		17.2.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.2.4 Rotation
		17.2.5 Pests and diseases
		17.2.6 Weed control
		17.2.7 Nutrition
		17.2.8 Irrigation
		17.2.9 Harvest and storage
	17.3 Broad beans
		17.3.1 Soils and climate
		17.3.2 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.3.3 Rotation
		17.3.4 Pests and diseases
		17.3.5 Weed control
		17.3.6 Nutrition
		17.3.7 Irrigation
		17.3.8 Harvest and storage
	17.4 Green beans
		17.4.1 Soils and climate
		17.4.2 Cultivations
		17.4.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.4.4 Rotation
		17.4.5 Pests and diseases
		17.4.6 Weed control
		17.4.7 Nutrition
		17.4.8 Irrigation
		17.4.9 Harvest and storage
	17.5 Lettuce
		17.5.1 Soils and climate
		17.5.2 Cultivations
		17.5.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.5.4 Rotation
		17.5.5 Pests and diseases
		17.5.6 Weed control
		17.5.7 Nutrition
		17.5.8 Irrigation
		17.5.9 Harvest and storage
	17.6 Baby leaves and herbs
		17.6.1 Soils and climate
		17.6.2 Cultivations
		17.6.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.6.4 Rotation
		17.6.5 Pests and diseases
		17.6.6 Weed control
		17.6.7 Nutrition
		17.6.8 Irrigation
		17.6.9 Harvest and storage
	17.7 Cabbages
		17.7.1 Soils and climate
		17.7.2 Cultivations
		17.7.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.7.4 Rotation
		17.7.5 Pests and diseases
		17.7.6 Weed control
		17.7.7 Nutrition
		17.7.8 Irrigation
		17.7.9 Harvest and storage
	17.8 Broccoli
		17.8.1 Soils and climate
		17.8.2 Cultivations
		17.8.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.8.4 Rotation
		17.8.5 Pests and diseases
		17.8.6 Weed control
		17.8.7 Nutrition
		17.8.8 Irrigation
		17.8.9 Harvest and storage
	17.9 Cauliflowers
		17.9.1 Soils and climate
		17.9.2 Cultivations
		17.9.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.9.4 Rotation
		17.9.5 Pests and diseases
		17.9.6 Weed control
		17.9.7 Nutrition
		17.9.8 Irrigation
		17.9.9 Harvest and storage
	17.10 Brussels sprouts
		17.10.1 Soils and climate
		17.10.2 Cultivations
		17.10.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.10.4 Rotation
		17.10.5 Pests and diseases
		17.10.6 Weed control
		17.10.7 Nutrition
		17.10.8 Irrigation
		17.10.9 Harvest and storage
	17.11 Bulb onions
		17.11.1 Soils and climate
		17.11.2 Cultivations
		17.11.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.11.4 Rotation
		17.11.5 Pests and diseases
		17.11.6 Weed control
		17.11.7 Nutrition
		17.11.8 Irrigation
		17.11.9 Harvest and storage
	17.12 Leeks
		17.12.1 Soils and climate
		17.12.2 Cultivations
		17.12.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.12.4 Rotation
		17.12.5 Pests and diseases
		17.12.6 Weed control
		17.12.7 Nutrition
		17.12.8 Irrigation
		17.12.9 Harvest and storage
	17.13 Carrots
		17.13.1 Soils and climate
		17.13.2 Cultivation
		17.13.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.13.4 Rotation
		17.13.5 Pests and diseases
		17.13.6 Weed control
		17.13.7 Nutrition
		17.13.8 Irrigation
		17.13.9 Harvest and storage
	17.14 Edible swede and turnips
		17.14.1 Soils and climate
		17.14.2 Cultivations
		17.14.3 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.14.4 Rotation
		17.14.5 Pests and diseases
		17.14.6 Weed control
		17.14.7 Nutrition
		17.14.8 Irrigation
		17.14.9 Harvest and storage
	17.15 Strawberries
		17.15.1 Soils and climate
		17.15.2 Drilling/planting and timings
		17.15.3 Rotation
		17.15.4 Pests and diseases
		17.15.5 Weed control
		17.15.6 Nutrition
		17.15.7 Irrigation
		17.15.8 Harvest and storage
	17.16 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
18 - Arable forage crops
	18.1 Crops grown for ensiling
		18.1.1 Forage maize
			18.1.1.1 Site selection
			18.1.1.2 Seedbed preparation
			18.1.1.3 Choice of variety
			18.1.1.4 Seed treatment
			18.1.1.5 Seed rate and sowing date
			18.1.1.6 Sowing maize under plastic film
			18.1.1.7 Undersowing forage maize
			18.1.1.8 Fertilisers
			18.1.1.9 Micronutrients
			18.1.1.10 Crop protection
			18.1.1.11 Harvesting
			18.1.1.12 Yields
			18.1.1.13 Cob-only maize harvesting options
			18.1.1.14 Environmental concerns
		18.1.2 Other cereals as silage crops
		18.1.3 Legumes grown for ensiling
	18.2 Root crops grown for lifting and storage or grazing in-situ
		18.2.1 Fodder beet
			18.2.1.1 Site selection
			18.2.1.2 Seedbed preparation
			18.2.1.3 Choice of variety
			18.2.1.4 Seed treatment
			18.2.1.5 Seed rate and sowing date
			18.2.1.6 Fertilisers
			18.2.1.7 Micronutrients
			18.2.1.8 Crop protection
			18.2.1.9 Harvesting
			18.2.1.10 Grazing in-situ
			18.2.1.11 Yield
		18.2.2 Swedes and turnips
			18.2.2.1 Site selection
			18.2.2.2 Seedbed preparation
			18.2.2.3 Choice of varieties
			18.2.2.4 Seed rate and sowing date
			18.2.2.5 Manures and fertilisers
			18.2.2.6 Micronutrients
			18.2.2.7 Crop protection
			18.2.2.8 Harvesting swedes
			18.2.2.9 Yield
	18.3 Leafy crops grown for grazing
		18.3.1 Kale, forage rape and hybrids (leafy brassicas)
			18.3.1.1 Site selection
			18.3.1.2 Seedbed preparation
			18.3.1.3 Choice of varieties
			18.3.1.4 Seed rate and sowing date
			18.3.1.5 Fertilisers
			18.3.1.6 Crop protection
			18.3.1.7 Grazing in-situ
			18.3.1.8 Yield
		18.3.2 Stubble turnips
			18.3.2.1 Site selection
			18.3.2.2 Seedbed preparation
			18.3.2.3 Choice of varieties
			18.3.2.4 Seed rate and sowing date
			18.3.2.5 Fertilisers
			18.3.2.6 Crop protection
			18.3.2.7 Grazing in-situ
			18.3.2.8 Yield
		18.3.3 Winter cereals as grazing crops
	18.4 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
19 - Introduction to grass production/characteristics of grassland and the important species
	19.1 Types of grassland
		19.1.1 Uncultivated grasslands
			19.1.1.1 Rough mountain and hill grazing
			19.1.1.2 Lowland heaths
			19.1.1.3 Calcareous downland
			19.1.1.4 Wetland and fen areas in east and south-west England
			19.1.1.5 Maritime swards
		19.1.2 Cultivated grasslands
			19.1.2.1 Permanent pasture
			19.1.2.2 Temporary grassland or ‘leys’
	19.2 The nutritive value of grassland herbage
		19.2.1 The effects of grass maturity
		19.2.2 Digestibility (‘D value’)
	19.3 Identification of grasses
		19.3.1 Grass species of economic value
		19.3.2 Identification of vegetative parts of main sown grass species
			19.3.2.1 Stems
			19.3.2.2 Leaves
			19.3.2.3 Other structures
		19.3.3 The inflorescence or flower head
	19.4 Identification of legumes
		19.4.1 Leaves
			19.4.1.1 Stipules
			19.4.1.2 Flowers
	19.5 Grasses of economic importance
		19.5.1 Types of grass varieties
		19.5.2 Details of individual species
			19.5.2.1 Short duration ryegrasses
			19.5.2.2 Westerwolds ryegrass
			19.5.2.3 Italian ryegrass (Fig. 19.15)
			19.5.2.4 Hybrid ryegrass
			19.5.2.5 Perennial ryegrass—early, intermediate and late varieties (Fig. 19.15)
			19.5.2.6 Diploids and tetraploids
			19.5.2.7 Festulolium
			19.5.2.8 Timothy
			19.5.2.9 Cocksfoot
			19.5.2.10 Meadow fescue
			19.5.2.11 Other grasses including non-sown grasses
	19.6 Forage legumes of economic importance
		19.6.1 Red clovers
		19.6.2 White clovers
			19.6.2.1 Clover blends
				Lucerne (or alfalfa)
		19.6.3 Sainfoin
		19.6.4 Bird's-foot trefoil or lotus
		19.6.5 Alsike
		19.6.6 Other forage legumes
	19.7 Herbs
	19.8 Grass and legume seed mixtures
		19.8.1 Traditional mixtures
		19.8.2 Modern seed mixtures
			19.8.2.1 Short-term mixtures
			19.8.2.2 Medium-term cutting/grazing mixtures
			19.8.2.3 Long-term grazing mixtures
			19.8.2.4 Herbal leys
			19.8.2.5 Mixtures including lucerne and sainfoin
			19.8.2.6 Mixtures suitable for equine use
			19.8.2.7 Mixtures suitable for agri-environment schemes
	19.9 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
20 - Establishing and improving grassland
	20.1 Establishing leys
		20.1.1 Terminology
			20.1.1.1 When is a reseed necessary?
		20.1.2 Spring sowing
		20.1.3 Late summer/early autumn sowing
		20.1.4 Direct sowing
		20.1.5 Direct drilling
		20.1.6 Undersowing
		20.1.7 Weed, pest and disease control in establishing leys
		20.1.8 Early management
	20.2 Grassland improvement and renovation
		20.2.1 Problem identification in existing grassland
		20.2.2 Drainage
		20.2.3 Soil structure and health
		20.2.4 Soil pH
		20.2.5 Phosphorus and potassium
		20.2.6 Control of perennial weeds
	20.3 Improving a sward by changing the management
	20.4 Improving a sward by renovation
	20.5 Fertilisers and manures for grassland
		20.5.1 Liming grassland
		20.5.2 Nitrogen
			20.5.2.1 Optimum nitrogen
			20.5.2.2 Grass and legume swards
			20.5.2.3 Organic manures and slurry
			20.5.2.4 Timing of nitrogen applications
		20.5.3 Phosphorus and potassium
		20.5.4 Other nutrients
			20.5.4.1 Magnesium (Mg)
			20.5.4.2 Sodium (Na)
			20.5.4.3 Sulphur (S)
	20.6 Irrigation of grassland
	20.7 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
21 - Grazing management
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Stocking rate
	21.3 Principles of grazing management
		21.3.1 Animal potential
		21.3.2 Grass potential
		21.3.3 Sward measurement
		21.3.4 Dry matter yield estimates
		21.3.5 Stocking rates and density at grass
	21.4 Grazing systems
		21.4.1 Strip grazing
		21.4.2 Rotational or paddock grazing
		21.4.3 Continuous grazing (not to be confused with set stocking)
		21.4.4 Mixed grazing
		21.4.5 Zero grazing
		21.4.6 Storage feeding
	21.5 Strategies to minimise parasitism at grass
	21.6 Measuring and setting targets for grassland production and output from grassland
	21.7 Future developments
	21.8 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
22 - Conservation of grass and forage crops
	22.1 Introduction
		22.1.1 Reasons for the conservation of forage and forage conservation techniques
		22.1.2 Forage conservation techniques
		22.1.3 The quality of conserved forage
		22.1.4 Choice of forage conservation technique
		22.1.5 Choice of forage conservation strategy
		22.1.6 Reasons for the dominance of silage
		22.1.7 Environmental threat of silage effluent
	22.2 The silage-making process
		22.2.1 Silage fermentation
	22.3 Crops for silage making
		22.3.1 Grasses
		22.3.2 Legumes
		22.3.3 Forage maize
		22.3.4 Other cereals for ‘wholecrop’ silage
		22.3.5 Alternative crops
	22.4 Factors affecting silage fermentation
		22.4.1 Type of crop
		22.4.2 Fertiliser and manure treatment
		22.4.3 Weather prior to and during harvesting
		22.4.4 Minimising soil and slurry contamination
		22.4.5 Field wilting
		22.4.6 Forage harvesting
		22.4.7 Baled silage
		22.4.8 Baled ‘haylage’
		22.4.9 Filling a horizontal (clamp) silo
		22.4.10 Final sheeting and sealing
		22.4.11 The use of silage additives
		22.4.12 Respiration and aerobic spoilage at feeding
	22.5 Hay
		22.5.1 Traditional hay production
		22.5.2 Barn-drying or conditioning
	22.6 Green-crop drying
	22.7 Key points
	Sources of further information and advice
Soil texture assessment in the field
Nomenclature of common plants including crop plants
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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