Lipids and essential oils as antimicrobial agents

Title\n......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
List of Contributors......Page 15
Introduction......Page 17
1 Membranes as Targets of Antimicrobial Lipids......Page 21
1.2 Oil and Water Don’t Mix!......Page 22
1.3.1 The Amphiphilic Character of Polar Lipids......Page 23
1.3.2 Hydrophobic Constituents of Lipids......Page 24
1.3.3 Polar Groups of Complex Lipids......Page 25
1.4.1 Critical Micelle Concentration......Page 27
1.4.2 Aggregation of Surface-Active Molecules......Page 28
1.4.3 The Influence of Solvent......Page 29
1.5.1 Membrane Lipids......Page 31
1.5.2 Lipid Domains in Membranes......Page 33
1.5.4 Membrane Stability......Page 35
1.5.4.1 Membrane Lipid Phase Behaviour......Page 37
1.5.4.2 Membrane Lipid Homeostasis in Homoiothermic Organisms......Page 38
1.5.4.3 Membrane Lipid Adaption in Poikilothermic Organisms......Page 39
1.6 The Action of Antimicrobial Lipids on Cell Membranes......Page 40
Acknowledgements......Page 41
References......Page 42
2.1 Introduction......Page 45
2.2 Antibacterial Activity of Soaps......Page 46
2.2.1 Antibacterial Action of Fatty Acids and Their Derivatives......Page 49
2.3 Inhibition of Lipids and Serum Albumin against the Antibacterial Action of Soaps......Page 53
2.4 Diverse Actions of Fatty Acids and Their Salts on Bacteria......Page 54
2.5 The Nature of the Bactericidal Action of Fatty Acids......Page 56
2.6 A Possible Role of Soaps and Fatty Acids in Host Defence against Bacteria......Page 58
2.7 Studies of Prophylactic and Therapeutic Applications of Soaps and Fatty Acids......Page 60
References......Page 63
3 Antibacterial, Antiviral and Antifungal Activities of Lipids......Page 67
3.2.1 Activities against Gram-Positive Bacteria In Vitro......Page 68
3.2.2 Activities against Gram-Negative Bacteria In Vitro......Page 71
3.2.3 Antibacterial Mechanism......Page 73
3.2.4 A Possible Role of Antimicrobial Lipids in Host Defence against Bacteria......Page 77
3.3.1 Early Studies of Antiviral Lipids......Page 78
3.3.2 Antiviral Activities of Milk Lipids......Page 80
3.3.3 Antiviral Activities of Lipids and Fatty Alcohols......Page 81
3.3.4 Antiviral Mechanism of Lipids......Page 85
3.4.1 In Vitro Studies......Page 87
3.4.2 In Vivo Studies......Page 91
3.5 Conclusions......Page 94
References......Page 95
4 Antimicrobial Lipids in Milk......Page 101
4.1 Introduction......Page 102
4.2.2.1 Measurement of Antibacterial Activity......Page 103
4.3.1 Lipids in Milk and Plant Oils......Page 104
4.4.1 Mechanism of Action......Page 105
4.4.2.1 Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins......Page 107
4.4.3 Influencing Factors......Page 108
4.5.1 Additive Advantage to Foods and Biological Products......Page 109
4.5.2 Physiological Advantage......Page 110
4.6 Safety, Tolerance and Efficacy......Page 111
References......Page 112
5 Antimicrobial Lipids of the Skin and Tear Film......Page 119
5.1 Introduction......Page 120
5.2.1 The Extensive Cutaneous Microbial Burden......Page 121
5.2.2 Cutaneous Innate Immune Mechanisms......Page 124
5.3 Types and Locations of Lipids of the Skin and Tear Film......Page 126
5.3.2 Epidermal Lipids......Page 127
5.3.4 Tear-Film Lipids......Page 129
5.5 Antimicrobial Activity of Lipids and Their Mechanisms of Killing......Page 131
5.5.2 Lipid Antimicrobial Activity and Mechanism of Action......Page 132
5.5.2.1 Sphingolipids......Page 133
5.6 Synergy of Cutaneous Lipids and Other Innate Immune Molecules......Page 134
5.8 Conclusions......Page 135
References......Page 136
6 Antimicrobial Lipids and Innate Immunity......Page 143
6.1 Introduction......Page 144
6.2.1 Breast-Feeding Protects Infants against Infection......Page 146
6.2.2 Factors in Human Milk which Protect against Infection......Page 147
6.2.3 Antmicrobial Lipids in Human Milk and Their Possible Protective Function......Page 149
6.3.1 The Innate Immune System of the Respiratory Tract......Page 154
6.3.2 Antimicrobial Fatty Acids in the Alveoli of Animal and Human Lungs......Page 155
6.4.2 The Role of Skin Lipids in the Self-Disinfection of Human Skin......Page 157
6.4.3 Sebum Lipids as a Source of Antimicrobial Fatty Acids in the Skin......Page 159
6.4.4 Stratum Corneum as a Source of Antimicrobial Lipids in the Skin......Page 162
References......Page 164
7 Lipids as Active Ingredients in Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics and Health Foods......Page 171
7.2.1 Antibacterial Activity......Page 172
7.2.2 Antiviral Activity......Page 173
7.2.3 Antifungal Activity......Page 174
7.3.2 Microbicidal Lipids for Treatment of Mucosal and Skin Infections......Page 175
7.3.3 Lipids as Penetration Enhancers in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms......Page 179
7.4 Microbicidal Lipids in Agriculture and Aquaculture......Page 180
7.5.1 Effect of Lipids on Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases......Page 183
7.5.3 Effect of Lipids on Cardiovascular Diseases......Page 185
7.5.4 Effect of Lipids on Cognitive Function......Page 186
7.6.1 Sources of Lipids Used in Cosmetics......Page 187
7.6.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Lipids in Cosmetics......Page 188
7.7 Lipids in Health Food......Page 189
References......Page 191
8.1 Introduction......Page 199
8.2 Soaps as Disinfectants and Antiseptics......Page 202
8.3 Use of Bactericidal Lipids to Reduce Microbial Contamination of Food Products......Page 204
8.4 Killing of Foodborne Bacteria by Glycerol Monocaprate (Monocaprin) Emulsions......Page 206
8.4.1 Reduction of Viable Campylobacter in Drinking Water and Feed of Chickens by Addition of Monocaprin Emulsions......Page 207
8.4.2 Reduction of Viable Campylobacter on Poultry Carcasses......Page 208
8.4.3 Reduction of Psychrotrophic Spoilage Bacteria on Chicken Carcasses......Page 211
8.4.4 Sanitation of Kitchen Surfaces by Washing with Monocaprin Emulsions......Page 214
References......Page 217
9 Chemistry and Bioactivity of Essential Oils......Page 223
9.1 Introduction......Page 224
9.2.1 Terpenes......Page 225
9.2.1.2 Monoterpenes......Page 226
9.2.1.4 Diterpenes......Page 228
9.2.2.1 Biosynthesis of Phenylpropanoids......Page 229
9.2.3 Sulfur and Nitrogen Compounds of Essential Oils......Page 230
9.3.1 General Overview......Page 231
9.3.2.1 Antibacterial Activity......Page 232
9.3.2.2 Antifungal Activity......Page 235
9.3.2.4 Antiviral Activity......Page 236
9.3.2.5 Antiprotozoal Activity......Page 238
9.3.3 Anticancer Activity......Page 239
9.4.1 Pharmaceutical Products......Page 241
9.4.2 Foods and Beverages......Page 242
References......Page 243
10.1 Introduction......Page 259
10.3 Cytotoxicity of Essential Oils......Page 260
10.4.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of Antiherpesvirus Activity of Essential Oils......Page 261
10.4.2 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of Antiherpesvirus Activity of Pure Essential Oil Components......Page 267
10.4.3 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of Antiviral Effects of Essential Oils against Other Viruses......Page 268
10.5 Mode of Antiviral Action of Essential Oils......Page 270
10.6 Conclusions......Page 271
References......Page 272
11 Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities of Essential Oils......Page 275
11.1 Introduction......Page 276
11.2 Methods for Quantifying Antimicrobial Activity......Page 277
11.3.2 Lamiaceae......Page 278
11.3.3 Lauraceae......Page 283
11.3.4 Myrtaceae......Page 284
11.3.5 Poaceae......Page 285
11.3.8 Comparative Activities of Essential Oils......Page 286
11.4.2 Alcohols......Page 287
11.4.3 Phenols......Page 288
11.4.5 Esters......Page 289
11.4.8 Terpene Hydrocarbons......Page 290
11.5.1 Microorganism-Related Factors......Page 291
11.5.2 Environmental Conditions......Page 292
11.6.1 Membrane and Membrane-Related Actions......Page 294
11.6.2 Adaptation and Tolerance......Page 296
11.6.2.1 Resistance......Page 298
11.6.3.1 Toxins, Enzymes and Virulence Factors......Page 299
11.6.3.2 Biofilms and Quorum Sensing......Page 300
11.6.3.3 Synergy between Essential Oils or with Other Compounds......Page 301
11.7.1 Animal Studies......Page 302
11.8.2 Animal Studies......Page 308
11.9 Conclusions......Page 313
References......Page 315
Index......Page 327