Linking indigenous communities with regional development in canada.

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations and acronyms
Executive summary
	Assessment
	Recommendations
Assessment and recommendations
	Assessment 1: Indigenous Peoples in Canada – trends and data needs
		Indigenous peoples are more likely to live in rural areas and experience poorer socio-economic outcomes
		The overall quality of data in Canada is high in an international context – but there are opportunities for improvement
	Recommendation 1: Indigenous Canada – trends and data needs
	Assessment 2: The importance of land for Indigenous economic development
		Land is fundamental to Indigenous community and economic development – but these opportunities are limited by historical and institutional factors
		Treaties are currently a key mechanism for First Nations and Inuit to secure land tenure and there are opportunities to improve the fairness, efficiency, transparency of these processes
		There are also mechanisms for First Nations to acquire land that require some procedural improvements
		Addressing technical and financial capabilities and cost issues will enable First Nations to take advantage of greater control over land management
		Indigenous land is indivisible and without the right tools and incentives it cannot be transferred or use as security for loans – this creates barriers to economic development
		Inconsistencies and gaps in land and environmental regulation impacts negatively on First Nations
		Indigenous peoples need to have an effective say over natural resource projects on their lands
	Recommendation 2: The importance of land for Indigenous economic development
	Assessment 3: Enabling Indigenous entrepreneurship and community economic development
		Indigenous entrepreneurship, particularly in rural areas, has some unique characteristics that require specific policy and program responses
		Business and entrepreneurship are important to creating opportunities for Indigenous peoples but there are barriers to growth and innovation
		Indigenous groups can build scale in economic development by setting up community owned corporations
		Geography shapes the resources and markets available to Indigenous entrepreneurs and a range of opportunities exist across different parts of Canada
		Over recent decades, Indigenous groups and the Canadian Government have developed a strong institutional framework to support Indigenous business and economic development
		Within this framework, there are a number of supply and demand side measures that would support growth in the Indigenous business sector
		In addition, Canada’s RDAs can also play a stronger role and need to be better connected to Indigenous communities
	Recommendation 3: Enabling Indigenous entrepreneurship and community economic development
	Assessment 4: Improving governance and policies for place-based Indigenous economic development
		A place-based approach to Indigenous economic development requires changes in how government works and relates to Indigenous peoples
		A national policy framework for Indigenous economic development would help clarify policy priorities, roles and responsibilities, and coherence across and between levels of government
		Improvements to engagement and consultation practices and strengthening local capacities is essential to implementing a place-based approach to Indigenous economic development
	Recommendation 4: Improving governance and policies for place-based Indigenous economic development
Chapter 1.  Overview of Indigenous governance in Canada: Evolving relations and key issues and debates
	Introduction
	Key terminology
	Legal and jurisdictional frameworks
		Evolving jurisprudence
			Aboriginal and treaty rights in the Constitution Act
			The status and rights of Inuit and Métis
		Jurisdiction over Indigenous affairs
		Actors, roles and responsibilities: A complex field
			From Indigenous governments to Indigenous organisations – there are a vast number of institutions across Canada
			The federal government has direct obligations to Indigenous peoples, but the scope of provincial-Indigenous relations is less well defined
	Historical overview
		Original Mutual Recognition: The Royal Proclamation and the Treaty at Niagara
		Indigenous Diplomacy: Indigenous Diplomacy: Treaties Signed Between 1701 and 1923
		The Indian Act
		Indigenous Resistance and the New Era of Treaty-making
		The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples and the Reconciliation Agenda
	Key debates in Indigenous peoples’ economic development
		Getting out from under the Indian Act
		Conflicts over land and land management
		Indigenous Knowledge and Economic Development Decision-Making
	Notes
	References
Chapter 2.  Profile of Indigenous Canada: Trends and data needs
	Introduction
	Socio-economic and demographic profile of Indigenous Canadians
		Population and demography
			Canada has a diverse and growing Indigenous population
			The Indigenous population represents a larger part of the total population in the West and North
			The Indigenous population is predominantly rural and remote
			The Indigenous population is younger on average…
			…particularly in rural areas
			While life expectancy is increasing across all Indigenous groups, it remains lower than the non-Indigenous population—by as much as 15 years
		Education
			Rates of educational attainment for Indigenous peoples are lowest for those residing in rural and remote areas
			Indigenous peoples have made gains in high school and postsecondary completion in the past decade
		Income
			Earnings gaps persist and are highest in the northern territories
			First Nations incomes are lowest on-reserve
			Non-market activities are also important
		Labour market participation
			Indigenous labour market outcomes are poorest in northern and remote areas
			Indigenous employment was severely impacted by the 2008 economic recession
			A shortage of jobs was the most commonly self-reported barrier to employment
			Indigenous peoples have higher propensities for employment in health care, social assistance and public administration than non-Indigenous persons; but they are underrepresented in business services and manufacturing
			Rates of self-employment among Métis are almost double the Canadian average
		Community well-being
			Indigenous communities have systematically lower level of community well-being than non-Indigenous ones
			Indigenous community well-being improved between 1981-2016
			Subjective assessments of well-being highlight the importance of social, cultural and land use issues for First Nations
			Many Indigenous communities face infrastructure deficits and poor housing conditions, particularly those that are rural and remote
			Canada’s commitment to achieving the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development presents an opportunity to improve Indigenous community well-being indicators
		Community accessibility
			Digital connectivity
	Profile of Indigenous businesses and entrepreneurship
		Profile of Indigenous businesses in Canada
			Indigenous businesses demonstrate innovation and – while generally small – they have a higher propensity to export
			Access to financing is one of the most commonly reported barriers to business development
			Businesses located on reserves have unique characteristics
			The majority of Indigenous firms registered under the Procurement Strategy for Aboriginal Business (PSAB) are micro enterprises
		Community-led economic development
	Improving Indigenous data and enhancing Indigenous data governance
		Addressing gaps in data collected by governments
			Despite quality statistical data on Indigenous peoples in Canada, gaps remain
			Improving the quality of Indigenous data on businesses and entrepreneurship and community well-being
				More needs to be done to capture Indigenous businesses and entrepreneurship
			New surveys and methods are needed in order to capture community-led enterprises
		Incorporating Indigenous values and perspectives into measuring economic development and well-being
			More robust and timely community well-being indicators are needed
		Empowering Indigenous communities to collect and use data to support local decision-making
			Enhancing community data for decision making
		Improving federal engagement with Indigenous organisations on statistics
			The Canadian government is strengthening its engagement with Indigenous organisations regarding data collection—but much remains to be done
	Notes
	References
Chapter 3.  The importance of land for Indigenous economic development
	Land: From dispossession to ongoing reconciliation
		Land rights are a contentious issue, but necessary to achieve reconciliation
		Historic dispossession of Indigenous lands has resulted in limited reserve land
		Métis title is pending broader recognition
		For Indigenous peoples, land has spiritual and cultural value, beyond a utilitarian view
	Indigenous land rights frameworks
		Indigenous peoples have different levels of property rights over different lands
		Aboriginal title: between proof and extinguishment
		Deriving wealth from land: opportunities for community economic development
	Evolving treaty rights and expanding reserve land
		Modern treaty-making
			Comprehensive Land Claims Policy—the modern treaty process
		Fulfilment and implementation of historic treaties
			Specific Claims Policy—a mechanism to settle disputes related to land and other claims
			Treaty Land Entitlement (TLE)—rectifying historical dispossession
		Land Acquisition
			Market value land acquisition
			State-assisted land acquisition
		Additions to reserve
	Managing land for sustainable economic development
		Indigenous land management
			A typology of Indigenous land management
			Towards greater autonomy and capacity to manage Indigenous land
		Transferring land management authority to First Nations
			Making the most of the FNLM regime
		Land use planning on reserve and treaty settlement lands
		Private property rights, collective benefits
			Holding land collectively can go hand in hand with private forms of property rights
			Granting access to credit
			Promoting economic investment
			Land designation
			Certificates of possession
		Aligning land use regulations across the traditional territory
			Adopting provincial regulations: FNCIDA
			Engaging Indigenous communities in regional and municipal land use planning
	Natural resource development projects and Indigenous communities
		Impact and Benefit Agreements
			The content of IBAs
			Types of compensation
			Conditions for a fairer negotiation process
		Consultation in Environmental Decision-Making
			Options to improve the Environmental Assessment process
	Notes
	References
Chapter 4.  Enabling rural Indigenous entrepreneurship
	Introduction
	Framework conditions for Indigenous entrepreneurship – people, places and institutions
		Rurality and remoteness: implications for Indigenous entrepreneurship and community development
			Key rural development strategies—improving accessibility and increasing activities in tradeable sectors
		The unique features of Indigenous entrepreneurship
			Rights frameworks structure economic activity, access to resources and land
			The centrality of community and kinship
			Land and eco-system protection
			Culture and Traditional Knowledge
			The hybrid economy
			Business regulation and taxation on reserve
	Competitive advantages for rural Indigenous entrepreneurship
		Renewable energy
			Renewable energy generation is a development strategy for remote and off-grid communities
		Forestry and fisheries
			The Indigenous forestry sector faces a number of constraints that limit growth
			Indigenous fisheries and aquaculture are well developed in some regions—but with access limitations
			The Indigenous fur industry is relatively small but new technologies have potential to scale production while maintaining sustainable practices
		Mining and extractive industries
			The mining and extractive industries are a major share of the Canadian economy—with large scale developments across northern Canada
			These industries bring a combination of opportunities and threats – and need to be carefully managed
			Indigenous communities are building capacity to effectively engage with the mining and extractive industries and ensure their concerns are addressed
		Land management and environmental services
			Payments for environmental services are limited across Canada and there are few programmes directed to Indigenous communities
			Land management programmes are increasingly common
		Cultural industries and tourism
			The Canadian Indigenous cultural industry has made its mark nationally and globally
			There is growing demand for Indigenous tourism offerings
		The services sector in rural and remote regions
			Linking up to local and regional markets
			Keeping the value of economic activities in communities
	Programmes and services to support Indigenous entrepreneurship
		The Government of Canada’s programmes for Indigenous business and community economic development
		Indigenous developmental lenders: Canada’s Aboriginal Financial Organisations
			Aboriginal financial institutions have proliferated since the late 1980s—increasing access to finance for small to medium sized firms
		Indigenous-led programmes for community economic development and financial management
			A growing number of organisations provide strategic policy advice
		Provincial and territorial programmes for Indigenous businesses and for community economic development
	Policy levers to strengthen Indigenous entrepreneurship in Canada
		Increasing access to finance
			Ongoing efforts are needed to strengthen access to finance
			Evolving Indigenous developmental lenders—scaling up, accessing private capital and aligning services
				Public funding remains critical to AFIs’ success
				Aligning programme delivery across the AFI network
			Expanding Indigenous-owned credit unions
			The potential of social impact investments
		Increasing access to banking and business services
			Canada’s rural, northern and remote communities are chronically underserved by broadband—this needs to change
				Beyond e-services, the potential of the Canadian postal services to act as banking branches in rural communities should be explored
			Navigating access to business programmes and services for Indigenous peoples—improving web platforms
			Access to business services navigators—the importance of person-to-person relationships
		Mainstreaming Aboriginal Procurement strategies in the federal government
			Mainstreaming Aboriginal procurement
			A user-friendly database of Indigenous businesses could help to mainstream Indigenous procurement
		Protecting Indigenous intellectual property
		Strengthening entrepreneurial skills and financial literacy
			The potential of Social Impact Bonds for employment and training
		Support for community-owned enterprises
		Increasing the visibility of Indigenous economies and supporting business partnerships
			Increasing the visibility of Indigenous economies
			Promoting Indigenous-non-Indigenous businesses partnerships
		Enhancing the role of Canada’s Regional Development Agencies in supporting Indigenous entrepreneurship
			Linking Indigenous peoples with regional development requires a depth of understanding of Indigenous development objectives and worldviews
			RDA performance indicators should incentivise Indigenous engagement
			Staff composition should be reflective of the population it serves
			Flexible programming and stronger Indigenous engagement
	Notes
	References
Chapter 5.  Improving governance for place-based Indigenous economic development
	Introduction
	Why a place-based approach to Indigenous economic development matters
	Coordinating national policies
		Coordinating across federal departments
			Canada has two lead departments for Indigenous affairs
				Both departments are important for place-based Indigenous development
				Regional offices act as an interlocutor between the national departments and Indigenous communities
			Many other departments deliver services, programmes or enact policies important to Indigenous peoples
			Cross-departmental coordination through the Strategic Partnerships Initiative
				Advancing a place-based approach to Indigenous economic development
		Developing a national policy framework for Indigenous economic development
			Canada does not currently have a national strategy for Indigenous economic development—does it need one?
			Learning from Australia and New Zealand
				New Zealand’s He kai kei aku ringa – for place-based development grounded in Māori culture
				Australia’s three Indigenous economic development strategies – shifting towards more Indigenous involvement and localised approaches
			What a national strategy for Indigenous economic development in Canada could deliver
	Aligning objectives and policy implementation across levels of government
		Indigenous self-government is part of Canada’s system of cooperative federalism
		The obstacle of jurisdiction
		Provincial/territorial-Indigenous relations
			The inclusion of Indigenous economic development in strategic plans
				Less than half of all provincial/territorial strategic plans include reference to Indigenous economic development
		Municipal-Indigenous intergovernmental relations
			Municipal-Indigenous engagement
			Multi-level government partnerships
			Indigenous-municipal agreements
		Coordinating across levels of government and strengthening multi-level government relations
			The federal government has a leadership role to play
	Improving engagement and participatory decision-making
		The duty to consult
			Engagement can take many forms—from informing to empowering
			The legal duty to consult and accommodate demands actions from all governments—this has been inconsistent in Canada
			Implementing the principles of free, prior and informed consent—a work in progress
		With whom to consult?
		From guidelines to structured engagement practices
			Relationship building matters
			The government of Canada has a leadership role to play in improving engagement practices
	Community capacity and self-determination
		Improving fiscal relations
			A new fiscal relationship with First Nations—from project planning to strategic investments
		Strategic planning and community development
			Canada has developed an excellent strategy for Indigenous Community Development—now it needs to fund it and implement it
		Regional alliances between Indigenous communities
	Notes
	References
		Annex 5.A. OECD Principles for Public Investment across Levels of Government
Chapter 6.  Community profiles
	Rural close to a city
		Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation, Ontario Canada
			A multi-pronged community economic development strategy
			Building capacity and expanding economic development opportunities
			Key economic development issues for the future
		Millbrook First Nation, Nova Scotia
			Millbrook’s advantageous location has been an important part of its economic development strategy
			Additions to reserve have helped expand economic opportunities
			Strong leadership, entrepreneurial activity and collective vision have been key to success
			A diversified economy and effective governance
			Key economic development issues for the future
		Mashteuiatsh Community First Nation, Québec
			Economy focussed on forestry and sustainable tourism
			Governance and strategic planning
			Negotiation of the comprehensive land claim Agreement
			Key economic development issues for the future
	Rural remote
		Gjoa Haven and Pangnirtung, Nunavut
			Governance, Nunavut Agreement and land use
			Economic opportunities and bottlenecks to development
			Pangnirtung
			Key economic development issues for the future
			Gjoa Haven
			Key economic development issues for the future:
		Neskantaga First Nation, Ontario
			Framework conditions for development are not met
			Governance arrangements
			Community services
			The Ring of Fire development
			Key economic development issues for the future
	Urban
		Kahnawà:ke, Mohawk Nation, Québec
			One of the largest bands in Canada
			Long-established governance
			A diversified urban economy
			The legacy of the Oka Crisis
			Key economic development issues for the future
	Notes
	References
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