Linguistic Linked Data: Representation, Generation and Applications

Preface
Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Part I Preliminaries
	1 Introduction
		1.1 FAIR Principles
		1.2 Linked Data as an Opportunity to Realize the FAIR Principles
		References
	2 Preliminaries
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Resource Description Framework
		2.3 Serializing RDF
			2.3.1 The N-Triples Language
			2.3.2 Turtle
			2.3.3 RDF/XML
			2.3.4 RDFa
			2.3.5 JSON-LD
		2.4 RDF Semantics, RDFS and OWL
			2.4.1 RDF Semantics
			2.4.2 RDF Schema
			2.4.3 Web Ontology Language (OWL)
		2.5 The SPARQL Query Language
			2.5.1 Publishing Data on the Web
		2.6 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	3 Linguistic Linked Open Data Cloud
		3.1 Background and Motivation
			3.1.1 Linked Data
			3.1.2 Linked Open Data
		3.2 Linguistic Linked Open Data
			3.2.1 The LLOD Cloud
			3.2.2 Infrastructure and Metadata
		3.3 LLOD Community
			3.3.1 Summary and Further Reading
		References
Part II Modelling
	4 Modelling Lexical Resources as Linked Data
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 The Core Model
		4.3 Syntax and Semantics
		4.4 Decomposition
		4.5 Variation and Translation
		4.6 Metadata
		4.7 Applications
		4.8 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	5 Representing Annotated Texts as RDF
		5.1 Introduction
			5.1.1 Tab-Separated Values: CoNLL TSV
			5.1.2 Tree-Based Formats: TEI/XML
		5.2 Annotating Web Resources
			5.2.1 Web Annotation (Open Annotation)
			5.2.2 Annotating Named Entities on the Web
		5.3 Annotating Textual Objects
			5.3.1 The NLP Interchange Format (NIF 2.0)
			5.3.2 Provenance and Annotation Metadata in NIF
		5.4 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	6 Modelling Linguistic Annotations
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Transforming Legacy Annotation Formats into RDF
			6.2.1 CoNLL-RDF: Shallow Transformation of CoNLL into RDF
			6.2.2 Querying and Manipulating CoNLL-RDF Annotations
		6.3 Top-Down Modelling: Generic Data Structures
			6.3.1 Linguistic Annotations in POWLA
				6.3.1.1 POWLA Nodes
				6.3.1.2 POWLA Relations
				6.3.1.3 OLiA Links
				6.3.1.4 Corpus Organization
			6.3.2 Complementing NIF with POWLA
			6.3.3 Transforming CoNLL-RDF to POWLA
		6.4 Querying Annotated Corpora
		6.5 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	7 Modelling Metadata of Language Resources
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Models for General Metadata
			7.2.1 DC-Terms
			7.2.2 DCAT
		7.3 Modelling Metadata of LRs with Meta-Share.owl
		7.4 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	8 Linguistic Categories
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 The Case of Language Identifiers
			8.2.1 ISO 639 Language Tags
				8.2.1.1 Two-Letter Codes (ISO 639-1)
				8.2.1.2 Three-Letter Codes from the Librarian Tradition (ISO 639-2)
				8.2.1.3 Three-Letter Codes for [Almost] All Human Languages (ISO 639-3)
			8.2.2 IETF Language Tags
			8.2.3 URI-Based Language Codes
				8.2.3.1 ISO 639 in RDF
				8.2.3.2 Glottolog
		8.3 General Repositories of Linguistic Reference Terminology
			8.3.1 Data Category Modelling and Standardization in ISOcat
			8.3.2 The General Ontology of Linguistic Description (GOLD)
			8.3.3 Transition to the CLARIN Concept Registry and DatCatInfo
		8.4 Application-Specific Terminology Repositories
			8.4.1 LexInfo: Linguistic Categories for Lexical Resources
			8.4.2 OLiA: Ontologies of Linguistic Annotation
			8.4.3 Limits of Axiomatization
		8.5 Summary and Further Reading
		References
Part III Generation and Exploitation
	9 Converting Language Resources into Linked Data
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 General Methodology for Generating and Publishing LLD
		9.3 Specification
		9.4 Modelling
		9.5 Generation
		9.6 Linking
		9.7 Publication
		9.8 Exploitation
		9.9 Guidelines for Particular Types of Language Resources
		9.10 Inclusion into the LLOD Cloud
		9.11 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	10 Link Representation and Discovery
		10.1 Link Representation
			10.1.1 Patterns for Creating Cross-Lingual Links at the Conceptual Level
			10.1.2 Cross-Lingual Links at the Linguistic Level
		10.2 Link Discovery
			10.2.1 Problem Statement
			10.2.2 Classification of Matching Techniques
			10.2.3 Terminological Similarity
			10.2.4 Structural Similarity
			10.2.5 Cross-Lingual Linking
		10.3 Linking Frameworks
		10.4 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	11 Linked Data-Based NLP Workflows
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Implementing NLP Workflows Using NIF
			11.2.1 Implementing a NIF-Compliant POS Tagging Service
			11.2.2 Implementing a NIF-Based Dependency Parsing Web Service
			11.2.3 Creating NLP Workflows with NIF-Based Services
		11.3 Composing NLP Workflows with Teanga
			11.3.1 Design and Implementation
			11.3.2 Services in Teanga
			11.3.3 Building Workflows
		11.4 LAPPS Grid
		11.5 Summary and Further Reading
		References
Part IV Use Cases
	12 Applying Linked Data Principles to Linking Multilingual Wordnets
		12.1 Princeton WordNet
			12.1.1 WordNet RDF
		12.2 Global WordNet Interlingual Index
			12.2.1 The Global WordNet Grid
			12.2.2 Collaborative Interlingual Index
			12.2.3 ILI Format
				12.2.3.1 GWN LMF
				12.2.3.2 GWN JSON
			12.2.4 Linking WordNet with Wikipedia
		12.3 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	13 Linguistic Linked Data in Digital Humanities
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Data Models and Vocabularies in DH
			13.2.1 The Text Encoding Initiative
			13.2.2 Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS)
			13.2.3 CIDOC Vocabulary for Describing Object Metadata
			13.2.4 The Canonical Text Service Protocol (CTS)
		13.3 Case Studies and Applications of LLOD in Digital Humanities
			13.3.1 Applying LLOD Methods in Prosopography
			13.3.2 Using LLOD Techniques to Reference Geographical Information
			13.3.3 Constructing a Database and Dictionary of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing
			13.3.4 Facilitating the Study of Ancient Wisdom Literature
			13.3.5 Encoding Chauliac\'s Grande Chirurgie with TEI and RDFa
		13.4 Summary and Further Reading
		References
	14 Discovery of Language Resources
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Data Collection
			14.2.1 META-SHARE
			14.2.2 CLARIN
			14.2.3 LRE Map
			14.2.4 Linked Open Data Cloud/Datahub.io
			14.2.5 Other Repositories
				14.2.5.1 European Language Resources Association (ELRA)
				14.2.5.2 Linguistic Data Consortium (LDC)
			14.2.6 State of Play with Respect to Finding Language Resources on the Web
		14.3 Modelling
		14.4 Harmonization
			14.4.1 Availability
			14.4.2 Rights
			14.4.3 Usage
			14.4.4 Language
			14.4.5 Type
			14.4.6 Duplicate Detection
			14.4.7 Data Completeness and Quality
		14.5 Publishing Linghub with Yuzu
		14.6 Summary
		References
Part V Conclusions
	15 Conclusion
A Selected Prefix Declarations