Lightning Protection (Iet Power and Energy)

Contents......Page 8
List of contributors......Page 28
Preface......Page 30
Acknowledgements......Page 32
1 Benjamin Franklin and lightning rods......Page 34
1.1 A Philadelphia story......Page 36
1.2 The French connection......Page 38
1.3 Experiments in colonial America......Page 39
1.4 First protection system......Page 40
1.5 Improvements......Page 42
1.6 ‘Snatching lightning from the sky’......Page 45
References......Page 46
2.1 Introduction......Page 48
2.2 Electric fields generated by thunderclouds......Page 52
2.3 Thunderstorm days and ground flash density......Page 56
2.4 Number of strokes and time interval between strokesin ground flashes......Page 58
2.5 Number of channel terminations in ground flashes......Page 64
2.6 Occurrence of surface flash over......Page 67
2.7 Lightning leaders......Page 69
2.8 Current parameters of first and subsequent return strokes......Page 80
2.9 Statistical representation of lightning current parameters......Page 88
2.10 Electric fields from first and subsequent strokes......Page 107
2.11 Peak electric radiation fields of first and subsequent strokes......Page 114
2.12 Continuing currents......Page 117
References......Page 121
3.1 Introduction......Page 130
3.2 Triggering techniques......Page 131
3.3 Overall current waveforms......Page 140
3.4 Parameters of return-stroke current waveforms......Page 143
3.5 Return-stroke current peak versus grounding conditions......Page 155
3.6 Characterization of the close lightningelectromagnetic environment......Page 161
3.7 Studies of interaction of lightning with variousobjects and systems......Page 164
References......Page 183
Bibliography......Page 192
4.1 Introduction......Page 198
4.2 Striking distance to flat ground......Page 209
4.3 Striking distance to elevated structures......Page 215
4.4 The leader progression model......Page 245
4.5 Non-conventional lightning protection systems......Page 272
References......Page 293
5.1 Introduction......Page 302
5.2 Characteristics of lightning transients and their impact......Page 306
5.3 Philosophy of surge protection......Page 311
5.4 Effects of parasitic elements in surge protection andfilter components......Page 327
5.5 Surge protection coordination......Page 335
References......Page 336
6.1 Introduction......Page 340
6.2 Air-termination system......Page 341
6.3 Down-conductor system......Page 353
6.4 Earth-termination system......Page 363
6.5 Selection of materials......Page 380
Acknowledgements......Page 383
References......Page 386
7.1 Damage due to lightning and other surges......Page 388
7.2 Protective measures......Page 394
7.3 Surge protection for power systems: power supplysystems (within the scope of the lightning protectionzones concept according to IEC 62305-4)......Page 422
7.4 Surge protection for telecommunication systems......Page 450
7.5 Examples for application......Page 456
Bibliography......Page 474
8.1 General considerations......Page 476
8.2 General concept of risk due to lightning......Page 478
8.3 Number of strikes to a selected location......Page 480
8.4 Damage probabilities......Page 485
8.5 Simplified practical approach to damage probability......Page 490
8.6 Question of relative loss assessment......Page 491
8.7 Concept of risk components......Page 492
8.8 Standardized procedure of risk assessment......Page 494
8.9 Meaning of subsequent strokes in a flash......Page 503
8.10 Final remarks and conclusions......Page 504
References......Page 505
9.2 Basic considerations about grounding systems......Page 508
9.3 The concept of grounding resistance......Page 509
9.4 Grounding resistance of some simple electrode arrangements......Page 512
9.5 Relation of the grounding resistance to the experimentalresponse of electrodes to lightning currents......Page 515
9.6 Typical arrangements of grounding electrodes for some relevantapplications and their lightning-protection-related requirements......Page 520
9.7 Conclusion......Page 530
References......Page 532
10.2 Basic circuit concepts......Page 536
10.3 Basic field considerations......Page 539
10.4 Frequency-dependent characteristics of the soil......Page 542
10.5 Grounding modelling for high frequencies......Page 544
10.6 Frequency-dependent grounding behaviour......Page 547
10.7 Frequency-dependent dynamic grounding behaviour......Page 554
10.8 Relation between frequency-dependent and non-lineargrounding behaviour......Page 559
References......Page 560
11.1 Introduction......Page 564
11.2 Critical electric field necessary for ionization in soil......Page 567
11.3 Various models used in describing soil ionization......Page 569
References......Page 583
12.1 Introduction......Page 586
12.2 Low-voltage networks......Page 587
12.3 Lightning surges on low-voltage systems......Page 601
12.4 Lightning protection of LV networks......Page 644
12.5 Concluding remarks......Page 656
References......Page 657
13.1 Introduction......Page 668
13.2 Lightning strike incidence to distribution lines......Page 669
13.3 Typical overvoltages generated by direct and indirectlightning strikes......Page 673
13.4 Main principles in lightning protection of distribution lines......Page 678
13.5 Lightning protection of distribution systems......Page 686
Appendix A13 Procedure to calculate the lightning performance ofdistribution lines according to IEEE Std. 1410-2004(from Reference 4)......Page 699
Appendix B13 The LIOV-Monte Carlo (LIOV–MC) procedure tocalculate the lightning performance of distributionlines (from Reference 56)......Page 701
Appendix C13 The LIOV code: models and equations......Page 703
References......Page 708
14.1 Introduction......Page 714
14.2 Nature of the lightning threat to wind turbines......Page 719
14.3 Statistics of lightning damage to wind turbines......Page 720
14.4 Risk assessment and cost–benefit evaluation......Page 721
14.5 Lightning protection zoning concept......Page 724
14.6 Earthing and equipotential bonding......Page 726
14.7 Protection of wind turbine components......Page 728
14.8 Wind farm considerations......Page 746
14.9 Off-shore wind turbines......Page 747
14.10 Lightning sensors and registration methods......Page 749
14.11 Construction phase and personnel safety......Page 750
References......Page 751
15.1 Lightning as a source of damage to broadcasting stations......Page 756
15.2 Effects of lightning flashes to the broadcasting station......Page 759
15.3 Lightning flashes affecting the power supply system......Page 764
15.4 The basic principles of lightning protection......Page 769
15.5 Erection of protection measures to reduce injury of living beings......Page 775
15.6 Erection of the LPS to reduce physical damage......Page 776
15.7 Potential equalization to reduce failures of electricaland electronic systems......Page 790
15.8 Screening to reduce failures of electrical andelectronic systems......Page 796
15.9 Coordinated SPD protection system to reduce failures ofelectrical and electronic systems......Page 799
15.10 Protection of lines and services entering the station......Page 801
15.11 Arrangement of power supply circuits......Page 804
Annex A15: Surge testing of installations......Page 809
References......Page 820
16.1 Introduction......Page 822
16.2 Structure of a rocket......Page 823
16.3 Launch pad......Page 824
16.4 Lightning threat to launch vehicle......Page 825
16.5 Lightning protection systems......Page 827
16.6 Weather launch commit criteria......Page 835
16.7 Review of present status and suggested direction forfurther work......Page 836
16.8 Indirect effects......Page 846
16.10 On-site measurements......Page 847
16.11 Summary......Page 848
References......Page 849
17.1 Introduction......Page 854
17.2 Tanks and vessels containing flammable materials......Page 855
17.3 Offshore oil platforms......Page 863
References......Page 872
18.1 Introduction......Page 876
18.2 Strike and damage probability of lightning to trees......Page 877
18.3 Types of lightning damage......Page 879
18.4 Protection of trees......Page 887
References......Page 888
19.1 Introduction......Page 892
19.2 Thunderstorm lifecycle and associated detection methods......Page 893
19.3 Examples of warning systems......Page 897
19.4 Warning system performance measures......Page 902
19.5 Application of performance measures to cloud-to-groundwarning systems......Page 912
19.6 Assessing the risks......Page 920
References......Page 927
20.1 Introduction......Page 934
20.2 The different ways in which lightning can interact with humans......Page 935
20.3 Different types of injuries......Page 939
References......Page 953
21.1 Introduction......Page 958
21.2 Standardized lightning currents......Page 959
21.3 Determination of possible striking points......Page 964
21.4 The lightning protection system (LPS)......Page 967
21.5 The LEMP protection measures system (LPMS)......Page 972
21.6 Conclusions......Page 977
References......Page 979
22.1 Introduction......Page 980
22.2 Lightning test equipment......Page 981
22.3 Measurement techniques......Page 1007
References......Page 1011
23.1 Introduction......Page 1014
23.2 Current propagation models (CP models)......Page 1016
23.3 Current generation models (CG models)......Page 1019
23.4 Current dissipation models (CD Models)......Page 1034
23.5 Generalization of any model to the current generation type......Page 1039
23.6 Generalization of any model to the current dissipation type......Page 1041
23.7 Current dissipation models and the modifiedtransmission line models......Page 1042
23.8 Effect of ground conductivity......Page 1043
23.9 Equations necessary to calculate the electric and magnetic fields......Page 1045
23.10 Concluding remarks......Page 1048
References......Page 1049
Index......Page 1052