Light of Devotion: Oil Lamps of Kerala

Cover
Map
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents Page
Acknowledgements
Note on names of towns
Art of Devotion
	Collections
	Festivals
	Bibliography
	Inscriptions
	Dating difficulties
Figure 1. Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, Kerala, c. 12th century, 6.5 inches, Collection of the late Dinesan Natesan, Bengaluru
Figure 2. Oil lamp, Egypt, Mamluk period, c. 1360, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. F1957.19
Figure 3. Wall of lamps, Mahadeva temple, Ettumanar, Kerala,
Figure 4. Metal shop employee inscribing a new kindi, Mannar, Kerala
Figure 5. Tree--shaped lamp, inscribed 1555, Denver Museum of Art, Colorado, height 25 inches, diameter 15 in, Gift in Life Trust from Mrs. Irene Littledale Downs in memory of William H. Downs, acc. no. 1964.8A-E. Photo Courtesy Denver Art Museum
Figure 6. cleaning disassembled oil lamp
Classification
	Names of Some Oil Lamps
	Stationary Lamps
	Suspension Lamps
	Portable Lamps
Suspension Lamps
	Archaeological Museum, Dadigama, Sri Lanka, elephant-shaped oil lamp
	Gaja/elephant-shaped lamps
	CSMVS, Mumbai, elephant-shaped lamp found at Jogeshvari, Maharashtra
	Thrissur State Museum elephant-shaped oil lamp from Thripunithura, Kerala
	Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, elephant-shaped oil lamp
	Vimana vilakku/ Temple model-shaped lamps
	Gaja Lakshmi
	Mythic Depictions
	Non-mythic suspension lamps
Figure 7. Shasta riding his elephant vehicle, Chola, Government Museum Chennai,
Figure 8. Pooram festival, Kerala
Figure 9. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Dadigama, Sri Lanka, c. 1100-1150, Archaeological Museum, Dadigama, acc. no. 2.12
Figure 10. hydrostatic oil release
Figure 11. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp with chain figures, Jogeshvari, c. 1100-1150, CSMVS, acc. no. B84. Courtesy of the Trustees of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalya
Figure 12. Chain detail figure 11
Figure 13. Chain figures detail figure 11
Figure 14. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/3, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 15. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/4, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 16. Temple elephant with caparison jewelry and kolam, Kerala
Figure 17. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp with Shiva, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram
Figure 18. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/34, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 19. Arjuna and Shiva hunting a boar, detail of Figure 18
Figure 20. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/2, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 21. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/1, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 22. Deity in sanctum, detail of Figure 21, Thrissur State Museum 10/1 Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 23. Vadakunathan Shiva temple, Thrissur, Kerala
Figure 24. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Nepal, 19th century, Courtesy of the Trustees of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalya, 22.2316, 21.75 by 13.5 inches, Sir Ratan Tata Art Collection
Figure 25. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/36 (reverse of Figure 26), Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 26. Shiva Kudumban suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/36 (reverse of Figure 25), Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 27. Krishna Fluting, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.4063, (reverse of Figure 28), height 12.5 inches by diameter 10.75, Gift of Richard Payne Knight in 1824, Photo courtesy British Museum
Figure 28. Gaja Lakshmi, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.4063 (reverse of Figure 27), Photo courtesy British Museum
Figure 29. Gaja Lakshmi, part of a suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 12/12 (reverse of Figure 30), Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 30. Processional scene, part of a suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 12/12 (reverse of Figure 29), Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 31. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/5 (reverse of Figure 32), Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 32. Foliate design on suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/5 (reverse of Figure 31), Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 33. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 322
Figure 34. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, c.14th century, height 15 inches, Natesan Collection, Mumbai
Figure 35. Padmanabhaswamy suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/35, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 36. Foliate design on reverse, Thrissur State Museum 10/35 (reverse of Figure 35), Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 37. Postcard of Padmanabha in Padmanabhaswamy temple sanctum, Thiruvananthapuram, length 18 feet
Figure 38. Padmanabha suspension oil lamp, Honolulu Museum of Art, 14th century, height 15.25 inches, diameter 12 inches, Gift of Christensen Fund, 2001 (10773.1) (reverse of Figure 39) Photo courtesy Honolulu Museum of Art, Hawaii
Figure 39. Vishnu on Garuda, suspension oil lamp, Honolulu Museum of Art (reverse of 38)
Figure 40. Padmanabha carved on wood temple part, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 41. Procession scene carved on wood temple part, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 42. Shri Poornathrayesa, temple base stone relief figure of Shri Poornathrayesa
Figure 43. Padmanabhaswamy, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.1610 (reverse of Figure 45), Photo courtesy of British Museum
Figure 45. Rama suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.1610 (reverse of Figure 43), Photo courtesy British Museum
Figure 44. Bhudevi, c. 14th century, height 10 5/8 inches, Bhansali collection, New Orleans
Figure 46. Mounted horse suspension oil lamp, Padmanabhapuram Palace, Thiruvananthapuram, 18th century
Figure 47. Horse head suspension oil lamp, 19th century, Dakshina Chitra, Chennai
Figure 48. Kuthu on staff in procession, Photo courtesy of Pepita Seth
Figure 49. Female acrobat suspension oil lamp, 11 inches, 18th century, Karnataka, Kelkar Museum, Pune
Figure 50. Mythical parrot suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/16, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 51. Lotus suspension oil lamp, height 12.5 inches, Thrissur State Museum 10/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 52. (Detail of Figure 51), Thrissur State Museum 10/11 with inscription, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 53. Ladies procession with suspension oil lamps, Photo courtesy Pepita Seth
Stationary Lamps
	Mada vilakku/wall niche lamps
	Vriksha vilakku or Tree-shaped lamps
	Kavara vilakku, branching lamp
	Nila or Kuthu vilakku or stambha
	Lakshmi Deepa/Fortune Lamp
	Kindi, ritual water pot lamp
Figures 54-57. Wall niche lamps, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 60. Wall niche lamp, Dakshina Chitra, Chennai
Figures 61. Wooden lamp stands for mada, Dakshina Chitra and Vijayaraghavan collections, Chennai
Figures. 58-59 Wall niche lamps, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 63. Tree-shaped oil lamp, Shiva temple, Ernaculum, Photo courtesy Srikumar M. Menon
Figures 62. Wooden lamp stands for mada, Dakshina Chitra and Vijayaraghavan collections, Chennai
Figure 64. Deepastambha, 16th century, Mahadeva temple, Ettumanar
Figure 65. Dharmavijayastambha, Mangalore, Karnataka
Figure 66. Flagstaff collar detail including Krishna Venugopala and 21 other gods in relief, 15th century, height 5 inches, diameter 13.75 inches, British Museum 1880.1609 Payne Knight Collection, Photo courtesy British Museum
Figure 67. Deepastambha, Thrissur State Museum, acc. no. 10/33, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 68. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, Sri Mahadeva temple, Sreekovil, Vaikom, Kerala, height 5-6 feet, now retired.
Figure 69. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, 13th century, Kerala, height 53 inches width 31 inches Honolulu Museum of Art, HI, Gift of Christensen Fund 2001, acc no. 106.46.1, Photo Shuzo Uemoto
Figure 70. Krishna fluting, (detail of top portion of Figure 69)
Figure 71. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, 14th century, Kerala, height 45.5 in, width 31 inches, Collection of the late Mahadevan Natesan, Bengaluru.
Figure 72. Gopis at base, (detail of Figure 71)
Figure 73. Peacock tree-shaped ground oil lamp, height 37.4 inches, Thrissur State Museum, 10/18, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 74. Peacock tree-shaped oil lamp, height 48 inches, c. 17-18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/17, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 75. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, height 4-5 feet, missing crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram
Figure 76. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp in temple, Kavara vilakku.
Figure 77. Branching oil lamp, height 37 inches, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 110A
Figure 78. Branching oil lamp, Kumaranallur temple, Kerala, 15th century, height 44 inches, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2005.75, Friends of Indian Art and Oak Lodge Foundation in memory of Barbara Hunt, and the Kathleen Boone Samuels Memorial Fund, Phot
Figure 79. figures on shaft (details of Figure 78)
Figure 80. Branching oil lamp, height about 5 feet, 16th century, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 81. Branching oil lamp, inscribed on base, 17th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 82. Ground oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 83. Ground oil lamp, 36.75 inches, Thrissur State Museum 10/24, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 84. Ground oil lamp, c. 17th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/20, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure  86. Ground oil lamp with rooster-like crowing element, height 39 inches, c. 18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/19 Department of Archaeology, Kerala.
Figure 85.  Ground oil lamp, height 33 inches, c. 17th- 18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/27, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 87. Ground oil lamp with peahen crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram
Figure 88. Ground oil lamp with doves crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram
Figure 89. Ground oil lamp with swan, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 90. Female figural oil lamp, Doll, c. 17th century, height 11 inches, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, acc. no. 574, open access photo
Figures 91-92. Female figural oil lamp of a donor couple, 17th century Nayak period, Karnataka, height 86.4 inches, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C. S 2000.9.1, Photo courtesy Sackler Gallery, and details.
Figure 93. Female figural oil lamp, c. 16th century, height 23.5 inches, Crafts Museum, New Delhi, 7/2134
Figure 94. Female figural oil lamp, c. 16th century, height 23.5 inches, Crafts Museum, New Delhi, 7/2134, detail of 93.
Figure 95. Female figural oil lamp, height 11 inches, 17th century Nayak period, height 11 inches, Karnataka, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, MO, 35-309
Figure 96. Female figural oil lamp, lower part, Thrissur State Museum, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 97. Female figural oil lamp, silver with partial gilding, 1850-1890, Karnataka, Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, From the Collection of William K. Ehrenfeld, M.D., 2005.64.180.a-b. Photograph © Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Size: H. 14 1/2 i
Figure 98. Kindi oil lamp, Napier Museum, acc. no. 112, H. 15 ¾, W. 4 1/3 inches
Figure 99. Kindi, Radeesh Shetty collection, Bengaluru
Figure 100. Kindi, 19th century, Portuguese oil lamp, Ebay
Figure 101. Kindi, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 102. Nagathiri, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, 164
Portable Lamps
	Arti/prayer
	Changalavatta
	Vanchi vilakku, boat-shaped processional torch
Figure 103. Pidi, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, #576
Figure 104. Lady, Karnataka, height 4 inches, length 14.5 inches, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru
Figure 105. Lion/man, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru
Figure 106. Cambodian lotus arti
Figure 107. Tree arti, Thrissur State Museum 13/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 108. Arti, drawing from Illustrations of Metal Work in Brass and Copper, Figure 144
Figure 109. Arti in ritual use, Meenakshi temple, Madurai
Figure 110. Changalavatta in ritual temple procession, Photo courtesy of Pepita Seth
Figure 111. Changalavatta, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 112. Changalavatta, drawing from Illustrations of Metal Work in Brass and Copper Figure 125
Figures *113-114. Changalavatta, Denver Art Museum, acc.no. ?, credit line ?
Figure 115. Oil pot, Thrissur State Museum 13/6, Department of Archaeology, Kerala
Figure 116. Oil lamps, Mattancherry Palace, Courtesy Mattancherry Palace Museum
Figure 117. Vanchi oil lamp, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai
Figure 118. Vanchi oil lamp, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Kerala, 9 ¼ by 15 inches c. 17th century, Stella Kramrisch Collection 1994, 1994-148-109a, b, Photo courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Art
Figure 119. Vanchi oil lamp, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 15 by 13.5 inches, acc no. 285, open access
Figure 120. Kuthu, cup type torch horse head, Koyikkal Palace Museum, Nedamangadu
Figure 121. Kuthu, horse-headed cup type suspended on chain, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai
Figure 122.  ritual use of kuthu oil lamps, photo courtesy of Pepita Seth
Extra Parts
Figure 123. Elephant with mahout, Kerala, Ashmolean Museum, height 11 inches, EA2013.97, Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett.
Figure 124. Das Avatar suspension lamp part Thrissur State Museum, 10/12.
Figure 125. Ardhanarishvara from plate of suspension oil lamp, Kerala, c.13th century Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, height 3.5 inches, acc. no. 1987.142.348, Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Gift of Samuel Eilenberg, Photo courtesy Metropolitan Museum
Figures 126-128. Krishna/Ganesha from plate of suspension oil lamp, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru
Figure 129. Bala Krishna suspension oil lamp, c. 15th century, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai
Figure 130. Krishna Venugopala suspension oil lamp, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai
Figure 131. Krishna Venugopala suspension oil lamp part, (Gaja Lakshmi on reverse) British Museum1979.06251, donated by Mrs. Edith Lande, height 3.5 in, width 15.2 inches, Photo courtesy British Museum
Figure 132. Birds from oil lamps, collection of Uma Rao, Bengaluru
Figure 133. Kartikeya riding his peacock, part of a suspension oil lamp, Kerala, c. 14th century, height 11 ¾ in width 7 ½ inches, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem MA, Gift of Marilyn Walter Grounds, 2002, acc. no. E302038
Figure 134. Peacock suspension oil lamp (missing figure of Kartikeya?), height 13.5 inches, with chain 47 inches, Photo courtesy Skinner, Inc. www.skinnerinc.com
Conclusion
	Characteristics
	South Indian bronze imagery
	Production features of style
	Iconography
	Dynastic arts
Figures 135-138. Guardian pair, Thrissur State Museum, from Iranikulam, Kerala, bronze, less than human size.
Figures 139-140. Ablution of Venugopala, former Lenart Collection.
Figure 141. Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Irinjalikuda temple, 10th century
Figure 142. Natesa, Kalmariaditya tandava, height 8 inches, Sotheby, lot 279, 19 Sept. 2008.
Figure 143. Yoga Narasimha, Kerala, height 8.5 inches, former Pan Asian collection.
Bibliography
Index
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