Life on Land

Life on Land
Series Preface
Volume Preface
List of Topics
About the Editors
About the Section Editors
Contributors
A
	Abiotic Influences on the Early Evolution of Life
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Rationale
			The Early Evolutionary Record (until 800 ma)
		Large Scale Abiotic Influences
			Plate Tectonics
			Igneous Activity (Volcanism and Magmatism) and Crustal Composition
			Super Continental Cycles and Paleogeographic Position
		Small Scale Abiotic Influences
			Oxygen
			Nutrients
			Temperature
			The Water Column System
		Perspectives
		References
	Afforestation
	Afforestation and Its Climate Change Impact
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Site Conditions
		Species Selection
		Sowing
		Planting
			Planting Material
			Planting Methods
			Planting Time
		Afforestation Density
		Aftercare Activities
		Afforestation and Biodiversity
		Afforestation and Climate Changes
		Key Issues
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Afrotropics: African Tropical Region
	Agrarian Values
	Agrarianism: The Way to Sustainability and Resilience
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Agrarianism in the Present
		Agrarian Values from the Classical Epoch to the Nineteenth Century
		Twentieth-Century and Contemporary Agrarianism
		New Inspirations for Agrarianism
		Sustainable Agriculture
		Resilience Agriculture
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Agricultural Ethics
	Agricultural Intensification
	Agricultural Practices and Sustainable Management in South Asia
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Soil Management
		Water Management
		Nutrient Management
		Crop Pests and Disease Management
		Weed Management
		Crop Diversification for Optimizing the Soil and Water Management
		Future Prospects
		References
	Agroecological Resilience
	Agro-ecology
	Amenities
	Anthropocentrism: Problem of Human-Centered Ethics in Sustainable Development Goals
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Economic Growth and Ecological Limits
		Inclusion and Exclusion
		Resilience and Extinction
		Ways Forward
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Arboretum
	Arbuscular Mycorrhizae: Beneficial Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Ensuring a Sustainable Natural Resource Base
		The Use of Bioproducts: Diminishing the Impact
		The Plant Microbiome
		Mycorrhiza as Part of the Root Microbiome
		Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Biotic Stress
			AM and Plant Protection Against Pathogens
			AM Improve Plant Defense to Herbivorous Insects
		Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Abiotic Stress
			Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soils
		Phytoremediation
			The Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in HMs Alleviation
			Glomalin: A Protein with an Important Role in Carbon Economy, Soil Decontamination, and Aggregation
		Using Biofertilizers in the Field
		Understanding and Manipulating the Mycorrhizosphere Microbiome
		Closing Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Artificially Established Forests
	Assessing the Role of Freshwater Legacy in Aquatic Health
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Types of Freshwater Ecosystems
			Ecosystem Legacies
		Changes in Freshwater Ecosystems
			Chemical Factors
			Physical Factors
			Biological Factors
		Future Directions
			Freshwater Biodiversity Threats
			Challenges of Long-Term Environmental Monitoring Programs
			Application of Paleoecotoxicology in Freshwater Legacy Assessment
		Cross-References
		References
B
	Biodiversity
	Biodiversity Crisis
	Biodiversity Erosion: Causes and Consequences
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Drivers of Biodiversity Erosion
			Habitat Changes
			Human-Induced Climate Change
			Invasive Alien Species (IAS)
			Resource Depletion (Overexploitation of Natural Resources)
			Pollution and Contamination
			Indirect Drivers
		Indicators of Biodiversity Erosion
		Key Issues on Islands
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Biodiversity Loss
	Biodiversity Loss and Countermeasures
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Biodiversity Loss
			Ecosystems
			Species
			Genetic Diversity
		Countermeasures
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Biological Diversity: Global Threats
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Threats to Biodiversity
		Human Population Growth
		Destruction, Fragmentation, and Habitat Loss
		Environmental Degradation and Pollution
		Global Climate Change
		Invasive and Allochthonous Species and Genetically Modified Organisms
		Overexploitation
		Diseases
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Biological Recultivation
	Biological Species Diversity
	Biome: Biotic Community
	Biotas
	Boreal Forests: Distributions, Biodiversity, and Management
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Global Distribution of Boreal Forests
		Biodiversity in the Boreal Forest
			Plants
			Mammals
			Reptiles and Amphibians
			Insects
			Fishes
			Birds
		Boreal Forest Management
			Canada
			Alaska, USA
			Scandinavia
			Finland
			Norway
			Sweden
			Russia
			Disturbances in the Boreal Forest
		Challenges in Sustainable Management of the Boreal Forest
		Conclusions
		References
	Botanical Gardens Facing Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Botanical Gardens and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
		Botanical Garden Seed Banks for Conservation, Restoration, and Introduction
		The Botanical Garden Herbaria for Reconstructing the Phenology of Plant Species
		Botanical Gardens and Education in Conservation and Climate Change
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
C
	Chernobyl Accident
	Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster
	Children and Nature: Developing Care for the Land
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Environmental Generational Amnesia
		The Need for Children to Interact with Wild Nature as well as Domestic Nature
		Can the Human Species Adapt its Way Out of the Problem of the Loss of Nature?
		Developing Care for the Land
		Representative Current Approaches
			Nature Preschools
			Green Schoolyards
			Encouraging Parents to Engage Nature with Their Children
			Fostering Children´s Interaction with Domestic Animals
			500 Ways to Combat Nature-Deficit Disorder
			Deepening Children´s Caring Relationships with the Land Through Rewilding
			Deepening Children´s Caring for the Land Through a Cultural Paradigm Shift
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Climate Change
	Coastal Mangrove
	Community-Based Management and Research to Forest Conservation
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Traditional Forest Conservation Practices
		Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Forest Conservation
			Local Communities and Protected Areas Governance
			Forest Conservation in Community-Led Initiatives
		Community-Based Research in Forested Areas
		Future Steps to Reach SDG15 Through Community-Based Research
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Community-Based Natural Resources Management
		Definition
		Introduction
			History of CBNRM
			Characteristics of CBNRM
			Community-Based Organization (CBO)
		Examples of CBNRM
			CAMPFIRE
			Community Forestry or Community-Based Forestry (CBF)
				History of Community Forestry
				Community Forestry in Nepal
			Shortcomings of CBF
		Benefits of CBNRM
		Success Story: Hariyo Ban Project
		Challenges Facing CBNRM
		Future of CBNRM
		Cross-References
		References
	Conservation
	Conservation of Mammals
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Bottom-Up Thinking in Conservation
			Conservation Marketing and Ambassadors: Charismatics Meet Umbrellas
			Behavioral Dissonance, Animal Attractions and Inappropriate Pets
			Where Conservation Meets Social Justice
		Top-Down Thinking in Conservation
			Conservation Geopolitics
			Geopolitical Perspective: Taxon Scale Priorities and Efficiencies
			Geopolitical Perspective: Species Scale
			Who Pays?
			Social Justice, the Cecil Movement, the Oxford Format, and Conservation-Led Development
		Summary
		Cross-References
		References
	Conservation of Plant Species
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Global Strategy for Plant Conservation
		Plant Conservation Categories
		Plant Conservation Strategies: Priorities, Goals, Methods and Objects
		Plant Conservation Strategies: Participation and Ownership
		Cross-References
		References
	Consumption and Biodiversity Conservation: Insights from Behavioral Science Using the MINDSPACE Approach
		Definitions
		Introduction
		MINDSPACE to Change Human Consumption for Biodiversity Conservation
			Messenger
			Incentives
			Norms
			Defaults
			Salience
			Priming
			Affect
			Commitment
			Ego
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Co-occurrence
	Crop, Weed, and Pests Management by GMOs
	Cultural Ecosystem Services
		Definition
		Introduction
		The Concept of Cultural Ecosystem Services
		Cultural ES Services: Structure and Function, Evaluation, and Categories
			Landscape Aesthetics
			Cultural Landscape (Cultural Heritage and Spiritual Significance)
			Recreation and Tourism
		Future Direction: Landscape Planning and Management
		Cross-References
		References
D
	Decrease of Biodiversity
	Degradation of Biodiversity
	Desertification: Causes and Countermeasures
		Definition
		Introduction
		Desertification: Land Degradation
			Drylands
			Causes and Consequences
			Assessment and Monitoring
			Countermeasures
		Conclusions
		References
	Destruction of Biodiversity
	Diversity Loss
	Diversity of Genes
E
	Ecocide: Past, Present, and Future Challenges
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Ecocide as a National Crime?
			Ecocide Is Considered as a Crime in Ten Countries
			British and French Failed Attempts
		Ecocide as an International Crime?
			Early Attempts to Define the Contours of Ecocide
			Protecting the Environment in Times of War
			Crimes Against the Environment or Crimes Against Humanity?
		The Future of Ecocide
			Environmental Crimes and the Rome Statute
			The Procedural Challenges Attached to Amending the Rome Statute
			Designing a Robust and Legally Sound Definition Proposal
		Cross-References
		References
			Treaties and Conventions
			United Nations and Tribunal Documents
	Ecological Destruction
	Ecological Integrity
	Ecological Restoration and Ecosystem Services
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Ecological Restoration of Ecosystems
		Importance of Scale in Planning and Implementing Ecological Restoration
		Applications at Site Scale
		Applications at Territory Scale
		Future Directions for SDGs 14 and 15 Targets Related to Ecological Restoration
		Cross-References
		References
	Ecological Unit
	Ecologies
	Ecology and Conservation of the World´s Primates
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Primate Diversity
		Primate Ecology
			Major Macroecosystem Use
			Major Habitat Use
			Biomes, Ecoregions, and Primates
			Tropical and Subtropical Forest Ecoregions
			Tropical Savanna Ecoregions
			Shrublands Ecoregions
		Primates Conservation History
		Global Primate Conservation Assessment
			Extinct Primates
			Critically Endangered Primates
		Global Threats to Primates
		Forests and Primates
		Perspectives for Primate Conservation
			Aichi Biodiversity Targets and Primates
			Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 and Primate Conservation
			Citizen Science for Conservation
		Final Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Economic Incentive Schemes
	Ecoregions: Mapping Ecosystems to Protect Biodiversity
		Definition
		The WWF Ecoregions
		Applications
			Planning
			Prioritization
			Climate Change
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Ecosystem Function
		Definitions
		The Use of the Ecosystem Functions Concept in Natural Sciences
		From Processes to Functions and Services
			Ecosystem Functions, Structure, and Organization
			Ecosystem Functions and Management
			Ecosystem Functions Versus Landscape Functions
		Urban Ecosystem Functions
		Ecosystem Functions and Sustainability of Life on Land
		Cross-References
		References
	Ecosystem Integrity
	Ecosystem Services
	Ecosystem Services and Integrity Trend
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Ecosystem Integrity and Ecosystem Services Integrity
		Assessment of Ecosystem Services
		Ecosystem Services and Ecosystem Integrity Trend
		Links with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
		Conclusion and Future Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
	Ecosystem Services Valuation
	Ecosystem Services: Meanings, Politics, Developments, and Way Forward
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Linking Ecology and Ecosystem Services
		Spatial and Functional Categorization of ES
		Valuation of ES
		Policy and Governance: Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES)
		Distribution and Justice Principles in ES Literature
		Debates Around Politics of Ecosystems Services
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Efficiency Frontiers
	Engagement with Trees as ``Long-Life Learning´´ for Sustainability
		Definitions
		Introduction: Trees and Society
		Trees in ``Deep Time´´
		Phytobiography and Long-Life Learning
			``Life Strategies´´ and Survival Strategies
		Trees in Cities
			Trees in Cities of the Dead
			Street Trees
		Conclusion
		References
	Environmental Crimes
	Environmental Destruction
	Environmental Deterioration and Sustainable Development
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Trends in Environmental Deterioration
			Environmental Deterioration on Land and Sea
			Governance to Reduce Environmental Deterioration
			Toward Implementation of SDG 15 (Life on Land)
		Cross-References
		References
	Environmental Education and Sustainable Development in an Ethical World
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Why Environmental Education?
			The Search for Worthwhile Paths
			Principles and Methodologies
			Final Considerations
		Cross-References
		References
	Environments
	Erosion of Biodiversity
	ES Bundle
	Estuarine Floodplain Forest
	Ex Situ Management for Conservation
		Definitions
		Introduction
		The Relevance of Ex Situ Management to Species Conservation
		The Evolution of Ex Situ Management: From Menageries to the One Plan Approach
		Ex Situ Management Options and Roles
			Addressing the Causes of Primary Threats
			Offsetting the Impact of Threats
			Restoring Wild Populations
			Buying Time
		Assessing Ex Situ Conservation Options
		Incorporating Ex Situ Conservation Assessment into Conservation Planning
		Use of Quantitative Tools in Ex Situ Assessment and Management
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Extinctions
F
	Family Farm
	Food Ethics
	Food Security
	Food Systems
	Food-Water-Energy Nexus
	Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes: Distribution, Biogeochemical Cycles, and Measurement Techniques
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Distribution of Carbon Across Global Forests
		Biogeochemical Cycles Associated with Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes
		Measuring Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes
		Drivers of Changes in Global Forest Carbon Stock and Fluxes
			Biotic Drivers of Change
			Anthropogenic and Abiotic Drivers of Change
			Climate Change Impacts
		Forest Carbon Stock and Opportunities for Sustainable Development
		Cross-References
		References
	Forest Dependency: Status, Assessment Tools, and Influencing Factors
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Status of Forests and Dependency Across the Continents
		Fuelwood Removals
		Employment Generation
		Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
		Forest Dependency in Developing Countries
		Common Tools and Methodologies for Understanding Forest Dependency
		Factors Influencing Forest Dependency
		Influence of Forest Dependency on Management
		Conclusion
		References
	Forest Ecosystem Services
		Definitions
		Forests and Forest Ecosystem Services: Major Characteristics
			What Makes Forests Different from Other Ecosystems?
			Which Forest Ecosystem Services Provide Key Benefits for Humankind?
				Wood Provisioning
				Climate Regulation
				Water Regulation
				Amenity
			Mapping Forest Ecosystem Services
		Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
			Biodiversity Function
			Mixed Forests in Practice
		Sustainable Management for Multiple Ecosystem Services
			The Management Feedback Loop
			Synergies and Trade-Offs Between Forest Ecosystem Services
			The Sustainability Condition
			Modeling and Decision Support
		The Way Forward: Adaptive Forest Landscapes in Support of SDG 15
		Cross-References
		References
	Forest Plantations
	Forest Planting
	Forest Products from the Wild
	Forest Renewal
	Forest Resource Administration
	Forest Restoration
	Forest Transition Approach to Support Global Forest Policy and Sustainable Development
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Background
		Forest Transition Theories
		Forest Transition Phases
		Policy Options for a Global Forest Transition
		REDD+ Policies: A Forest Transition Approach
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Forest Transition Stages
	Forest Tree and Liana Life-Forms
	Forestation
	Freshwater Ecosystems: A Foundation for Life on Land
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Spatiotemporal Movement of Freshwater Ecosystems
		Landscape Approaches to Freshwater Ecosystem Conservation
			Hydrological Connectivity
			Land Cover Change
			Water Extraction
		Species Invasions in Freshwater Ecosystems
		Landscape Approaches to Reduce Freshwater Ecosystem Degradation
		Mountain Glaciers: Imperilled Freshwater Ecosystems
		Landscape Values are Freshwater Values
		Landscape-Scale Freshwater Modeling
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Functional Biodiversity Unit
G
	Genetic Differences
	Genetic Diversity: Sources, Threats, and Conservation
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Importance of Genetic Diversity
		Sources of Genetic Diversity
			Mutation
			Random Genetic Drift
			Gene Flow (Migration)
			Natural Selection
		Genetic Diversity Determination
		Threats to Genetic Diversity
			Habitat Loss, Deforestation, and Fragmentation
			Pathogens, Invasive and Allochthonous Species
			Environmental Pollution and Global Climate Change
		Conservation of Genetic Diversity
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Genetic Variation
	Genetic Variety
	Genetically Engineered Crops
	Genetically Engineered Crops Impact
	Genetically Engineered Plants
	Genetically Engineered Plants Impact
	Genetically Modified Crops
	Genetically Modified Crops Impact
	Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Regulative on GM Plants
		Plant Transformation Methods
		Plant In Vitro Culture
		Overview of GM Crops Present on the Worldwide Market
		Herbicide Tolerant (HT) Plants
		Insect-Resistant Plants (Bt Crops)
		Virus-Resistant Plants
		GM Crops General Impact
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Genetically Modified Plants
	Geoconservation for Sustainable Development
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		History of Geoconservation
		Geoconservation of Equal Importance to Conservation of Biodiversity
		Principles, Practice, and Approach
		Geoconservation and Sustainable Communities
		Future Challenges and Prospects
		Cross-References
		References
	Geodiversity Conservation
	Geographic Information Science: Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Ecosystems Management
		Definitions
		Introduction
		GIS: One Abbreviation, Three Meanings: Geographic Information Science, Systems, and Services
			Investigating Spatial Ecological Phenomena Using GIS
			GI Science and GI Technology
			Spatial Analysis and Visualization
			GI Science and Technology to Support Ecosystem Management
			Land Ecosystems and Biodiversity
			Spatial Data as a Prerequisite for Sustainable Management
			Multilayer Analysis
			Remote Sensing
			Open Data, Volunteered Geographic Information, and Citizen Science
			Participatory GIS for Sustainable Decision-Making
		Conclusion Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	Geographies of Differences (and Resistances) in Urbanized and Depopulated Remote Rural Areas
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Mapping Depopulated Differences
		Mapping Depopulated Moral Realities
		Mapping Traditional Strategies of Resistance: Farmer Populations in Depopulated Spaces
		Mapping New Strategies of Resistance: The New Social Groups in Depopulated Rural Environments
		Mapping Urban Ruralities
		Mapping Nostalgic Rural Individualities in the Urban Environment
		Mapping Ruralities Embedded in the City
		Mapping Urban Rurality Borders
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Geoheritage Conservation
	Geological Conservation
	Geomorphological Conservation
	Global Change
	Global Nitrogen in Sustainable Development: Four Challenges at the Interface of Science and Policy
		Definitions
		Introduction: Global Nitrogen, Four Challenges
		Meeting Global Food Demand While Reducing Nitrogen Pollution
		Quantifying the Nitrogen Cascade: Linking Nitrogen Forms, Expert Communities, and Policy Frameworks
		Externalities: Assessing Costs, Benefits, and Solutions
		Institutional Frameworks: Designing Effective Knowledge Governance Systems
		Nitrogen and Sustainable Development: Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Global Threats
	Global Warming
	GM Plants Benefits
	Grassland
	Greening
H
	Habitat Degradation: Pressures, Threats, and Conservation
		Definition
		Introduction
		The Main Pressures and Threats to Terrestrial Habitats
			Agriculture
			Deforestation and Monocultures
			Urbanization
			Recreation and Tourism
			Energy Production
			Climate Change
			Invasive Species
		Managing the Threats of Habitat Degradation
			Protected Areas
			Measures to Mitigate the Main Causes of Habitat Degradation
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Habitat Destruction
	Habitat Fragmentation
	Habitat Loss
	Habitat Size Reduction
	Halophyte
	Human and Social Dimensions of Wildland Fire Management and Forest Protection
		Definitions
		Introduction
		The Frames of Wildfire Management
			Wildfire Risk Governance
			Wildfire Risk and Social Vulnerability
			Wildland-Urban Interface
		Wildland Fire Management
		The Integration of Human and Social Dimensions on Wildland Fire Management: A Holistic Approach
			Community Engagement and Participation on Wildland Fire Management
			Community Development
		Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Human Well-Being
I
	Impact Caused by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Risk Analysis of GM Plants Safety
		Impacts of Herbicide-Tolerant Plants
			Environmental Risks
			Advantages of Herbicide-Tolerant Plants
		Impact of Insect-Resistant Crops (Bt Crops)
			Environmental Risks
			Advantages of Bt Plants
		Impact of Virus-Resistant Plants
			Environmental Risks
			Advantages of Virus-Resistant Plants
		Potential Impact of GM Crops with Improved Quality/Increased Nutritive Value
		Current Regulatory Status of GMOs
			Regulative on GMOs
			Regulative in the USA
			Regulative in the European Union (EU)
			Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
			Codex Alimentarius
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Impact of Land Degradation on Rural Livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Definition of Land Degradation
		Land Degradation in the Sustainable Development Goals
		Implications of Land Degradation for Rural Livelihoods in SSA
			Land Degradation and Rural Food Security
			Land Degradation and the Supply of Key Livelihood-Support Resources
			Land Degradation and Rural Poverty
			Land Degradation and the Provision of Ecosystem Services
			Land Degradation and Rural Women
			Land Degradation and Health
		Institutional and Policy Framework and Initiatives for Addressing Land Degradation in SSA
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Indirect Ecosystem Services
	Indomalayan: Asia Tropical Region
	Integrated Control
	Integrated Control Protection
	Integrated Pest Management: Sustainable Approach to Crop Protection
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
			The Origin of the Concept
		Theoretical Aspects
		Implementing Integrated Pest Management in Europe
			European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO, https://www.eppo.int/)
			International Organization of Biological Control (IOBC)/West Palearctic Regional Section (WPRS)
		Cross-References
		References
	Integrated Plant Protection
	Intermediate Ecosystem Service
	Intertidal Forest
	Invasive Species Impacts and Management
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Invasive Alien Species: Setting the Scene
			Impacts of Invasive Alien Species
		(Successful) Control of Invasive Species Is Much More Than Remove Them
		Future Directions/Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Invasive Species: Routes of Introduction, Establishment, and Expansion
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Pathways by Which Alien Species Are Transported
		Establishment: The Self-Replacing Population Stage
		Expansion
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Isolation of Habitat Patches
K
	Kakamega Tropical Forest: Island in a Human-Dominated Landscape
		Definition
		Introduction
		History of Unsustainable Utilization
		Current Efforts Toward Conservation and Successes
		Future Plans
		References
L
	Land
	Land Use Planning
	Landscape
		Definition
		Introduction
		Landscape Approach
			Landscape Concept and Dimension
			Landscape Character Assessment
		Landscape Protection
		Landscape Planning and Management
		Future Direction: Planning Sustainable Development at the Landscape Scale
		Cross-References
		References
	Landscape Management
	Land-Use Change
	Land-Use Intensity and Land-Use Change: Impacts on Biodiversity
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Land Use and Other Drivers of Global Biodiversity Loss
		Land-Use Intensity and Land-Use Change: Status, Trends, and Definitions
		Land-Use Change and Global Biodiversity
		Land-Use Intensity and Global Biodiversity
			Agricultural Systems
			Forest Management
		Land-Use Change and Ecosystem Service Delivery
		Strategies and Policies for Biodiversity Conservation Toward SDGs in Relation to Land-Use Change
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Life on Land: Bottom-Up Sustainability Conscientiousness
		Definition
		Introduction: Sustainability Implementation
			Bottom-Up Sustainability Approaches in the Twenty-First Century
		Tax Ethics
		Public-Private Partnerships
			Corporate Social Responsibility
			Finance Sector Solutions
				Ethical, Environmental, Social, and Governance-Oriented Investments
		Cross-References
		References
	Livestock Welfare
	Living Modified Organisms
	Loss of Biological Diversity
	Loss of Biological Variety
M
	Maintenance
	Mangal
	Mangrove Forests: Ecology, Management, and Threats
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Ecology
			Factors Controlling Mangrove Distribution
			Unique Ecological Features of a Mangrove Forest
			Unique Features of a Mangrove Species
		Mangrove Biodiversity
		Major Threats to Mangrove Forests
			Forest Conversion and Deforestation
			Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise
			Biological Invasion
		Mangrove Management
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Manmade Forests
	Markets for Ecosystem Services
	MEA
	Minor Forest Products
	Mountain Biodiversity and Sustainable Development
		Definitions
		Introduction
		The Elevational Gradients
		Plant Life
		Animal Life
		Origin of Mountain Biotas
		Mountains as Wildlife Sanctuaries
		Threats to Mountain Biodiversity
		Sustainable Development
		Cross-References
		References
	Multifunctional Landscapes
N
	National Park and Ecosystem Integrity
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Development and Challenges of National Parks
			Brief History of Global National Parks
			Challenges of National Park Ecosystem Conservation Around the World
		History, Basis, and Practical Application of Ecological Integrity in National Park Management
			Origin and Development of Ecological Integrity
			Social Basis for Monitoring Ecological Integrity
			Ecological Integrity Monitoring Programs of Parks Canada Agency: Introduction and Application
			The Vital Signs Monitoring Programs of National Park Service: Introduction and Application
			Comparison Between the Ecological Integrity Monitoring Program and the Vital Signs Monitoring Program
		Contribution of National Parks and Ecosystem Integrity to UN SDGs
		References
	National-Scale Forest Shift Stages
	Natural (Forest) Products
	Natural and Sociolegal Dimensions of Soil for Ecosystems Sustainability and Human Health
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Soil Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning
		Soil Bioengineering and Ecological Sustainability and Human Health
		International Protection of Soil
			Direct Legal Protection of the Soil
			Indirect Legal Protection of the Soil
			Legal Protection of Soil Ecosystem Services
		Outlook and Challenges
		Cross-References
		References
			Links
	Natural Environment and Human Well-Being
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Human Well-Being and Terrestrial Nature
			Well-Being Accounts and Natural Environment
			Health and the Natural Environment
		Human Well-Being and Social and Environmental Relations
		Linking SDG 15 and Human Well-Being
			Effects of Land Degradation on Well-Being
			Effects of Progress Towards Improving Well-being on SDG 15
		Conflicts in Achieving SDG 15 in Environmental Management
		Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
	Natural Habitat Loss: Causes and Implications of Structural and Functional Changes
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Background of Natural Habitat Loss
		Contemporary Context of Natural Habitat Loss
		Linking SDG 15 and Natural Habitat Loss
		Causes of Natural Habitat Loss
		Types of Natural Habitat Loss
		Effects of Natural Habitat Loss
		Cross-References
		References
	Natural Resources Belowground
	Neotropics: American Tropical Region
	New Forests Establishment
	New Paradigms for Modern Biogeography Conservation
		Definitions
		Introduction
		The Planetary Crisis
		The Rise of Biodiversity Conservation
		Ecological Processes
			Metapopulation Dynamics
			Migratory Movements
			Trophic Relationships
			Genetic Variability
			Phylogenetic Pool
			Functional Patterns
			Abiotic Environment
		Forward-Looking Conservation Planning
		Socioeconomic Players
		Hard and Soft Land Ownership
		Spatially Explicit Data Challenges
		The Way Forward
		Final Remarks
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
	Nonhuman Primates: Monkeys
	Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Issues Related to Definition
			What Products Belong to ``NTFPs´´?
		Economic Importance
		NTFPs Policy, Governance, and Support Measures
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Non-wood Forest Products
	North American Grasslands as Multifunctional Landscapes
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		North American Grasslands Before Euro-American Colonization
		Current Status of the North American Grasslands
			Agriculture
			Energy Production
		Challenges for North American Grassland Biodiversity
			Climate Change Impacts
			Land-Use Impacts to Biodiversity
				Agricultural Land Use and Biodiversity
				Fossil Fuel Extraction and Biodiversity
				Wind Energy and Biodiversity
		Managing the North American Grasslands as Multifunctional Landscapes
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
O
	Other Forest Products
	Outplanting
P
	Pareto Frontiers
	Participants
	Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)
		Synonyms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Types of Payments for Ecosystem Services
			Direct Payment Schemes
			Product-Based PES Schemes
			Biodiversity Conservation
			Water Quantity and Quality/Hydrological Protection
			Carbon Sequestration Functions
			Landscape Aesthetics/Ecotourism
		Integrating Stakeholder Perspectives
		PES Criticisms and Risks
		Future Directions
		References
	People and Community Engagement in Biodiversity Conservation
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Legislations Related to People and Community Engagement
		Maastricht Recommendations on Public Participation in Decision-Making (ECE/MP.PP/2014/8)
		What Actually Is Engagement or Participation
		Different Concepts, Methods, and Approaches in People and Communities´ Engagement
		Practical Applications of People and Communities´ Engagement
		Cross-References
		References
	PES
	Pest Management
	Plant and Animal Resources
	Planted Forests: Characterization and Sustainable Management
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Characterization of Planted Forests at a Global Scale
			Importance of Planted Forests at a Global Scale
		Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable Development
		Planted Forests Management Issues
		Planted Forests and Species and Genetic Diversity
		Planted Forests and Invasive Species
		Planted Forests: Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Prairie
	Prairie, Steppe
	Production Possibility Frontiers
	Protection
	Provisions
	Public Participation
R
	Re-afforestation
	Realm: Kingdom
	Reclamation
	Recreation
	Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Governance in REDD+ Implementation
		The UN-REDD, the REDD+ Process, Its Challenges, and Way Forward
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Reforestation and Sustainable Development
		Synonyms
		Definitions
			Distinction from Afforestation
		The Role of Reforestation in Sustainable Development and Large Reforestation Programs
		Reforestation Practice
			Passive Reforestation: Natural Reforestation and Natural Regeneration
			Active Reforestation
				Reforestation by Assisted Natural Regeneration
				Reforestation by Direct Seeding
				Reforestation by Planting of Seedlings
					Site Characteristics
					Species Selection
					Provenance Selection
					Planting Material: Seedling Quality
					Preplanting Site Preparation
					Planting
					Postplanting Culture
		Reforestation Challenges and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Regulating Ecosystem Services: Enhancements Through Sustainable Management
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Classifying Regulating Ecosystem Services
		Ecosystem Services and Sustainable Development
		Challenges of Managing Regulating Ecosystem Services
		Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services
		Cross-References
		References
	Rehabilitation
	Replanting
	Restocking
	Restoration
	Restoration Ecology: The Emerging Paradigms
		Definition
		Introduction
		Background
		Best Practices on Restoration Ecology
		Scaling Up Restoration
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
			Web Links (Accessed 18th April, 2019)
	Restoration of Floodplain Forests in European Estuaries
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Setting the Scene on Estuarine Restoration
				Benefits of Estuarine Restoration
				Estuarine Restoration of Tidal Freshwater Wetlands in Europe
			Floodplain Forests in European Estuaries
				Characterization of European Floodplain Forests in Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
				Loss of Floodplain Forest and Legislation of Estuarine Floodplain Forest Restoration
				Implementation of Estuarine Floodplain Forest Restoration
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Rethinking Agro-food Sector to Combat Land Degradation and Desertification
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Global Assessment of Land Degradation
		The State of Global Land Degradation and Its Costs: Global and Regional Trends and Patterns
			Land Degradation Due to LUCC
		Loss of Biodiversity
		Degradation of Agricultural Land
		Cost of Land Degradation
		Impact of Land Degradation on Agro-Food Sector
		Why Farmers Allow Land to Degrade Even Though they Heavily Depend on it?
		Restoration of Degraded Lands
		Future Directions to Ensure Simultaneous Restoration of Degraded Lands and Achieving Food and Nutrition Security
		Cross-References
		References
	Revitalization
	Ruralism
S
	Sacred Forests
	Sacred Groves: Potential for Biodiversity and Bioresource Management
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Sacred Groves: An Overview
			Origin and Distribution
			People and Culture
			Sacred Versus Nonsacred
			Ecosystem Function and Services
		Biodiversity, Bioresources, and Sustainable Utilization
			Plant Diversity and Forest Biomass
			Animal Diversity
			Changes as Driven by Disturbances
			Bioresources and Its Utilization
		Sacred Groves: Current Status, Threats, and Conservation Need
			Global Scenario
			Management and Conservation
		Cross-References
		References
	Sacred Natural Areas
	SDG15
	Secondary Forest Products
	Shareholder
	Small Farm
	Social Forestry: Principles, Evolution, and Implications for Sustainable Development
		Definition
		Introduction
		The Concept of Social Forestry
		Principles of Social Forestry
		Advantages and Limitations of Social Forestry
		The Emergence and Evolution of Social Forestry
		Social Forestry in Asia and the Pacific
		Social Forestry in Europe
		Social Forestry in South America
		Social Forestry in North America
		Social Forestry in Africa
		Social Forestry in the Context of Sustainable Forest Management and Human and Social Capital Development
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	Social Origins of Threats to Ecosystems
		Definition
		Introduction
		Indicators of Threat to Biodiversity
			Extinction
			Genetic Diversity
		Threats to Biodiversity
			Habitat Destruction
			Climate Change
			Local Example of Climate Change and Biodiversity in Nepal
			Overexploitation and Unsustainable Use
			Pollution and Nutrient Load
			Invasive Alien Species
		Combined Pressures from Above Threats
		Response to Threats
		Future of Biodiversity
			Reducing Future Threats to Biodiversity
		Cross-References
		References
	Socio-environmental
	Socio-environmental Food Systems Under Anthropogenic Climate Change: The Water-Energy-Food Nexus Perspective
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Anthropogenic Climate Change and the Anthropocene
		The Concept of Sustainable Development and Action of the United Nations
		Linking Food Systems, Agriculture and Food Security to SDG 15
		Sustainable Food Systems: The Water-Energy-Food Nexus Perspective
		Conclusions and Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	Soil Contamination and Remediation
		Definitions
		Introduction
		The Soil Contamination Problem Revisited
		Remediation of Polluted Soils
		The Reuse of Waste Materials in the Recovery of Degraded Soils
		The LIFE No_Waste Project
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		References
	Soil Degradation Processes, Causes, and Assessment Approaches
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Causes of Soil Degradation
		Types of Soil Degradation
		Other Types of Soil Degradation
			Desertification
			Soil Degradation Assessment
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Soil Fertility, Integrated Management, and Sustainability
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Soil Degradation
		Soil Fertility and Sustainable Development Goals
		Factors that Influence Soil Fertility
		Soil pH
		Soil Erosion
		Cropping Methods
		Soil Water Loss
		Nitrogen Loss
		Excess Nutrients
		Toxic Chemicals and Pesticides
		Sustainable Soil Management Techniques
		Stabilizing the Soil pH
		Manures and Fertilizers
		Soil Conservation Techniques
		Reducing Soil Toxicity
		Sustainable Water Management
		Outlook
		References
	Soil Health Restoration to Address Food and Water Security
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Interconnected Global Soil Degradation and Water Scarcity
		Comprehensive Program for Soil Health Restoration
		Historical Roots to Soil Degradation
		Comprehensive Soil Health Assessment
		Continuum of Strategies: From Management to Restoration
		Jump-Starting Restoration of Desertified Soils
		Integrating Soil and Water Management for Sustainable Food Security and Resilient Ecosystems
		Outlook: A Vision for Moving Forward
		Cross-References
		References
	Soil Quality
	Soil Sustainability
	Species Extinction
	Stakeholder Approaches
	Stakeholder Engagement in Environmental Decision-Making Processes
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Stakeholder Typologies and Identification
		Regulations Related to Stakeholder Engagement
		Stakeholder Analysis Overview
		Practical Implications of Stakeholders Analysis
		Cross-References
		References
	Supporting Ecological Services
	Supporting Ecosystem Goods and Services
	Supporting Ecosystem Services: Concepts and Linkages to Sustainability
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction to Supporting Ecosystem Services
			Evolution of the Concept and Terminology of Supporting Ecosystem Services
			``Supporting Ecosystem Services´´ Within the Ecosystem Services´ Conceptual Frameworks
			Characteristics of Supporting Ecosystem Services
		Different Types of Supporting Ecosystem Services
			Primary Production
			Secondary Production
			Biodiversity
			Genetic Resources
			Oxygen
			Water
			Soil Processes
			Nutrient Cycling
			Habitat
			Pollination
			Supporting Ecosystem Services from Different Ecosystem Types
		Economic Valuation of ``Supporting Ecosystem Services´´
		Supporting Ecosystem Services and Sustainability
			Supporting Ecosystem Services and Sustainable Development Goal 15: Life on Earth
		Conclusions and Future Research Needs
		Cross-References
		References
	Survival of Biological Diversity
	Sustainable Development of Territories After Chernobyl Disaster
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Overview of the Main Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident
			Environmental Consequences
			Public Health Consequences
			Social and Economic Consequences
		Chernobyl Disaster-Related Legislation
		Sustainable Development to Overcome the Consequences of the Chernobyl Disaster
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	Sustainable Fire Management
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Drivers of Fire Activity and the Role of Fire Management
		Suppression-Centered Fire Management Policies: Development and Consequences
		Inertia in Suppression-Centered Fire Management Policies
		Towards Sustainable Fire Management
		An Example of Sustainable Fire Management: The West Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (WALFA) Program
		Sustainable Fire Management and Means to Implement SDG15
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Sustainable Management of Plant Species
	Sustainable Use of Natural Resources
		Definitions
		Introduction
		What Are Natural Resources?
		What Is Use?
		What Is Sustainable Use?
		Why Is Natural Resource Use a Pressing Issue for Sustainability?
		What Concepts, Theories, or Approaches Exist to Help Us Understand and Communicate on the Sustainability of Natural Resource U...
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	Synergies and Trade-Offs Between Ecosystem Services
		Synonyms
		Definitions
		Introduction
		What Are Trade-Offs in Ecosystem Services?
			Co-occurrences and Trade-Offs
			Trade-Offs in Potential Supply
			Demand-Side-Driven Trade-Offs
				Use, Demand, and Preferences
				Temporal Dynamics
				Social Scale
			Making the Painful Visible
				Constraints
				System Boundaries
				Uncertainty
				Distributional Trade-Offs
				Value Conflicts
		Balancing Multiple Objectives in Decision-Making
			Improving Decisions on Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs
				Modelling
				Deliberation and Decision-Making Processes
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
T
	TEEB
	Temple Forests
	Tendency
	The Forest Cover Shift Stages
	Tidal Forest
	Tidal Forested Wetland
	Traditional and Indigenous Knowledge: Bridging Past and Future Sustainable Development
		Definitions
		Introduction
			Indigenous People: Identity and Rights
		Indigenous, Traditional, and Modern Knowledge
		Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity Preservation and Research
		Indigenous Knowledge, Protected Area Management, and Governance
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
			Websites
	Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge
		Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge and Sustainable Forest Management
		Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Sustainable Development
		Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge, Its Challenges, and Opportunities
		Traditional Forest Plant-Related Knowledge in Bangladesh: An Instance with Comparison
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Transgenic Crops
	Transgenic Crops Impact
	Transgenic Plants
	Transgenic Plants Impact
	Tree Plantations
	Tree Planting
	Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Tropical Forests
			Ecological Perspectives
			Socioeconomic Perspectives
			General Aspects of Management and Global Initiatives for Forest Conservation
		Bangladesh Forests as a Case
		Conclusions
		References
	Tropical Savannas and Conciliating Production with Conservation Strategies: The Case of Brazil
		Definitions
		Land Use and Ecosystems for Achieving the SDGs
		The Role of Tropical Savannas for Achieving the SDGs: A Production and Protection Agenda
		A Case Study on the Making: The Cerrado Savannas of Brazil Current Land Use and Future Needs
		Concrete Examples of Production and Protection in the Cerrado
		Some Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
	Acknowledgment
		References
U
	Urban Growth and Biodiversity Conservation
		Definition
		Introduction
		Growth of Area and Population, and the Factors That Determine Impacts on Biodiversity
		The Impact of Cities on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
		Urban Metabolism and the Impact of Cities Beyond Their Borders
		Urban Green Infrastructure and Nature-Based Solutions Are Crucial for Biodiversity and Human Well-Being
		Good Practices Toward Restoring Biodiversity in Urban Ecosystems
		Cities Represent an Opportunity to Learn on the Road to Sustainable Management
		Cross-References
		References
V
	Vegetation Types and Representativeness
		Definition
		Plant Community, Vegetation and Ecosystem
		Classification of Vegetation Types
		Vegetation Types and Representativeness
		Cross-References
		References
W
	Water Scarcity
	Wetland Conservation and Sustainable Development in Kerala, India
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Wetlands of Kerala
		Deterioration of the Wetlands
		Policy and Legal Framework for Wetland Conservation
		Schemes/Programs for Wetland Conservation
		Challenges to Wetland Conservation
		Future Directions
		Cross-References
		References
	Wild Food
	Wild Forest Products
	Wild Harvested Products
	Wildlife and Sustainable Development
		Definitions
		Introduction
		Examples of Different Impacts on Wildlife and Sustainable Practices
			Sustainable Development of Giant Panda Habitats
			Illegal Capture of Migratory Passerines in the Mediterranean Basin
			Illegal Trade of Rhinoceros´ Horns
			Critically Endangered Orangutans
			Reestablishment of Iberian Lynx and their Habitats in the Iberian Peninsula
			An Amphibian Species at the Brink of Extinction
			Tourism as a Threat to Islands´ Endemic Reptiles
		Future Directions
		References