Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects (Studies in English Language)

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
Figures, maps and tables......Page 12
Contributors......Page 15
Foreword......Page 21
1 The emergence of overseas varieties of English......Page 23
1.1 What constitutes dialect input?......Page 24
1.2 The relative value of dialect features......Page 25
1.3 Internal ranking in dialects......Page 26
1.5 Dialect survival......Page 27
1.6 Dialect diaspora......Page 28
1.8 False leads......Page 29
1.10 ‘Colonial lag’......Page 30
1.12 The neglect of distinctions......Page 31
2 The spread of English......Page 32
2.1 The social setting overseas......Page 33
2.2 Patterns of settlement......Page 34
2.4 The formative years of a variety......Page 35
2.5 Dialects and standards......Page 36
3.1 Contact with other groups......Page 37
3.2 Language shift......Page 43
3.3 Internally motivated change......Page 45
3.4 Creolisation and transported dialects......Page 46
References......Page 47
Part I Out of Britain......Page 53
1 Introduction......Page 55
1.1 The story of emigration......Page 56
2.1 The starting point......Page 57
2.2 Types of speech examined......Page 58
2.3 Dialects in the early modern period......Page 59
2.4 Dialect features in England......Page 60
3 Features not transported......Page 61
3.1 A case in point: the STRUT lexical set......Page 62
3.2 The reduction and loss of variants......Page 63
3.3 Other dialect features which have been lost......Page 65
3.4 Morphosyntax......Page 68
3.5 Lexical features......Page 71
5 Transported features recessive or lost at source......Page 72
5.3 Palatal glide insertion......Page 73
6.1 The which/witch merger......Page 74
6.4 Short vowels before /r/......Page 75
References......Page 76
1 Introduction......Page 81
2 Sources for the study of Scots......Page 83
3.1 Phonology......Page 85
3.2 Vocabulary and grammar......Page 90
4 Ulster Scots......Page 91
4.2 Phonology......Page 93
5.1 Phonology......Page 95
5.2 Grammar and idiom......Page 97
References......Page 98
1 Introduction......Page 104
2.1 Development of Irish English......Page 105
2.2 The linguistic situation in medieval Ireland......Page 107
3 Renewed dominance of English......Page 108
4.1 Medieval period......Page 110
4.2 Early modern period......Page 111
5 The language shift......Page 113
6 Supraregionalisation......Page 115
7 Traditional vernacular varieties......Page 116
8 Interpreting features of Irish English......Page 117
9 The Survey of Irish English Usage......Page 120
10 Diffusion of Irish English......Page 121
10.1 The Irish in Britain......Page 122
10.2 Ulster Scots in the United States......Page 124
10.3 The Catholic dimension to Irish emigration......Page 126
10.4 Canada......Page 128
10.6 Australia......Page 131
References......Page 132
Part II The New World......Page 141
1 Introductory remarks......Page 143
2 Methodological considerations......Page 144
3.1 Early prestige language and local dialects in England......Page 146
3.2 Approaches to settler input......Page 147
3.3 Sociodemographic considerations......Page 148
3.4 Social order and language change......Page 152
4 Evidence from early records......Page 154
Pronunciation......Page 156
Verbs......Page 159
Nouns......Page 166
Adjectives......Page 168
Pronouns......Page 169
Numerals and expressions of quantity......Page 171
5 Concluding remarks......Page 172
Primary sources cited......Page 173
Secondary sources......Page 175
2 Third-person-singular present-tense zero: previous studies......Page 180
3.1 The Court of Governors of the hospitals of Bridewell and Bethlem......Page 182
3.2 The transportees to Virginia and Bermuda......Page 183
3.3 Evidence from the Court Minute Books......Page 184
4.1 Third-person-singular present-tense indicative -s and -th......Page 185
4.2 Third-person-singular present-tense subjunctive zero......Page 186
4.4 Third-person-singular past-tense indicative (the historical present) zero, -th......Page 187
4.5 Third-person-singular present-tense indicative zero......Page 188
4.6 Various forms and functions in a continuous text......Page 189
Manuscript material......Page 190
References......Page 191
1 Introduction......Page 194
2 On defining remnant speech communities......Page 196
3 Some selective dialect traits: a comparative overview......Page 200
5 The donor issue......Page 204
6 Independent language change......Page 208
7 Language contact......Page 215
8 Conclusion......Page 219
References......Page 220
1 Introduction......Page 225
2 The English connection......Page 226
3 The conditioning of verbal -s......Page 227
4 Back to -s......Page 229
5 The data......Page 230
6 Ananalytical excursus......Page 232
9 Multivariate analysis of constraints on verbal -s variability......Page 234
9.1 Phonological context......Page 236
9.2 Verbal aspect......Page 237
10 Discussion......Page 239
References......Page 242
8 ‘Canadian Dainty’: the rise and decline of Briticisms in Canada......Page 246
2 The Canadian branch of North American English......Page 247
3 The persistence of the Loyalist accent......Page 249
4 Enclaves of Scots and Irish origin......Page 250
5 British linguistic proprieties......Page 251
6 The uniquely Canadian double standard......Page 252
7 Canadian Dainty......Page 254
8.1 Pronunciation of leisure......Page 255
8.2 Yod-dropping......Page 258
9 Britannia no longer rules the (speech) waves......Page 260
References......Page 262
1 Newfoundland English as a relic variety......Page 264
2 Founder populations......Page 266
3.1 The maintenance of marked features......Page 269
3.2 The maintenance of founder constraints......Page 271
3.3 Nonfocusing: the ethnohistorical factor......Page 272
4 Shared features in Newfoundland English: dialect contact, retention, or independent innovation?......Page 275
5 Some historical puzzles......Page 278
6 Conclusion......Page 279
References......Page 281
1 Introduction......Page 284
2 Historical background and earlier research......Page 286
3.1.1 Hallmarks of Southern English......Page 291
3.2 Morphology and syntax......Page 305
3.2.1 Hallmarks of Southern English......Page 306
3.3 Lexis......Page 314
4 Southern English as an innovative variety?......Page 319
5 Conclusion......Page 322
References......Page 325
1 Introduction......Page 332
2 The solution......Page 337
3 Scotch-Irish grammatical features......Page 339
4 Persistence of grammatical features......Page 342
6 Conclusions......Page 344
References......Page 345
1 Introduction......Page 348
2 British and Irish regional input......Page 350
3.1 The case of Barbados......Page 352
3.2 Early Barbadian English......Page 355
4.1 Phonology......Page 359
4.2 Morphology......Page 361
4.3 Syntax......Page 362
5 Conclusions......Page 373
References......Page 375
Part III The southern hemisphere......Page 383
1.1 General concepts......Page 385
1.2 The historiography of ETEs: special problems......Page 386
2.1 The south-east bias......Page 388
2.2 What it is to be southern English......Page 390
3 ‘British’ vs. ‘American’: the north/south divide......Page 391
4 The mainland origins of South African English......Page 392
5 The southern trichotomy......Page 394
6.2 The South African chain shift......Page 396
6.3 The vowel system......Page 397
6.4 Consonant system......Page 400
6.5 Some morphosyntactic curiosa......Page 402
6.6 South African lexis......Page 403
7.1 Periodisation......Page 405
References......Page 406
1 Introduction......Page 409
2 Historical account......Page 411
3.2 The input varieties......Page 414
3.3 Characteristics of Tristan da Cunha English......Page 419
4 Conclusion......Page 421
References......Page 422
2 Nineteenth-century settlement – the founder population......Page 424
3 Twentieth-century settlement......Page 427
4.1 Inter- and intra-speaker variability......Page 428
4.2 Why has FIE not focused?......Page 429
4.3 Phonetics and phonology......Page 430
4.3.1 Vowels......Page 431
4.3.2 Consonants. As with other English varieties, the consonantal system of FIE shows less variation than the vowel system.......Page 434
4.4 Grammatical variation......Page 436
References......Page 437
1 Introduction......Page 440
2 The character of early settlement of Australia......Page 441
2.1 The social situation for the first generation......Page 442
2.2 Settlement patterns......Page 445
3 Evaluating the significance of features of present-day Australian English......Page 447
3.1 Present-day Australian English and Irish English......Page 448
3.2 ‘Melting pot’ theories......Page 450
4 Australian English in the context of southern hemisphere varieties of English......Page 451
5 Change in the past and the present in Australian English......Page 452
6 Aboriginal English in Australia......Page 454
6.1 The development of Aboriginal English......Page 455
6.2 Aboriginal English: features......Page 456
References......Page 458
1 Migration and colonisation......Page 462
2 Migrant origins and demography......Page 465
3 The Mobile Unit archive......Page 469
4 New Zealand English......Page 470
5 Independent developments......Page 474
References......Page 475
1 Introduction......Page 478
2.1 The formation of Pacific Jargon English in the eighteenth century and the nature of documentary evidence......Page 482
2.2 The emergence of stable pidgins......Page 486
3 Linguistic features......Page 491
3.1 Phonology......Page 492
3.2 Lexicon......Page 495
3.3 Grammar/syntax......Page 512
References......Page 516
Part IV English in Asia......Page 523
1 Introduction......Page 525
1.1 ‘World Englishes’, definition and aims......Page 526
1.2 Continuing contact and ‘World Englishes’......Page 527
1.3 Autonomy, creativity and focusing......Page 528
1.5 The nativeness question again......Page 529
1.6 Terminology and background languages......Page 531
2 Second-language and foreign-language varieties......Page 532
3.1 Main factors in determining Asian Englishes......Page 533
4 Characteristics of Asian Englishes......Page 536
4.1 Phonology......Page 537
4.1.1 Vowels......Page 538
4.1.2 Consonants......Page 539
4.2 Morphology......Page 542
4.3 Syntax......Page 544
4.3.1 The verbal complex......Page 546
5 African Englishes......Page 549
5.1 The role of background languages......Page 551
References......Page 552
20 South Asian Englishes......Page 558
1.1 External history......Page 559
1.2 The spread of English in South Asia......Page 561
1.4 The development of English in India......Page 563
1.5 Linguistic levels......Page 565
1.6 Indigenous languages......Page 570
2.1 Introduction......Page 572
2.3 Linguistic levels......Page 573
3.1 History......Page 574
3.2 The position of English......Page 575
References......Page 576
21 South-East Asian Englishes......Page 581
1.1 Early British involvement......Page 583
1.3 Ethnic composition......Page 584
1.5 The use of English......Page 585
1.6 Linguistic levels......Page 586
1.7 Indigenous language......Page 587
2.3 The development of English in Singapore......Page 588
2.5 Knowledge of English......Page 589
2.6 Linguistic levels......Page 590
3 English in Hong Kong......Page 592
3.2 The development of English in Hong Kong......Page 593
3.3 Indigenous languages......Page 594
3.4 Linguistic levels......Page 595
4 English in the Philippines......Page 596
4.2 Ethnic composition......Page 597
4.3 Forms of English......Page 598
4.4 Linguistic levels......Page 599
4.5 Indigenous languages......Page 601
References......Page 602
Appendix 1 Checklist of nonstandard features......Page 608
1.1 Consonants......Page 609
1.2.1 General......Page 613
1.2.2 Long vowels......Page 615
1.2.3 Diphthongs......Page 616
1.2.4 Short vowels......Page 617
1.3 Processes......Page 619
1.5 Standard lexical sets......Page 621
2.2 Pronouns......Page 622
2.3 Verb forms......Page 624
2.4 Adverbs......Page 627
3.1 Determiners, pronouns, etc.......Page 628
3.2 Clause structures......Page 630
3.3 Topicalisation devices......Page 632
3.5 Aspect......Page 633
4 Vocabulary......Page 635
References......Page 637
Late sixteenth century......Page 643
The eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries......Page 644
Early nineteenth century (i)......Page 645
End of the nineteenth century......Page 646
Early nineteenth century......Page 647
Twentieth and twenty-first centuries......Page 648
Appendix 3 Maps of anglophone locations......Page 649
References......Page 673
Glossary of terms......Page 676
General references......Page 693
1 General......Page 694
2 England......Page 697
3.1 Scotland and Wales......Page 699
3.2 Ireland......Page 700
4.1 American English......Page 701
4.1.1 African American English......Page 703
4.2 Canadian English......Page 704
5.1 South Africa......Page 705
6 Asian Englishes......Page 706
6.1 South Asian Englishes......Page 707
6.2 South-East Asian Englishes......Page 708
8 Pidgins and creoles (with English as lexifier language)......Page 709
9 Literature on emigration and colonial history......Page 710
Index of names......Page 714
General index......Page 731