Learning radiology: recognizing the basics

Front cover
	IFC_Student Consult
	Learning Radiology
	Copyright page
	Dedication
	Contributor
	Preface
	Acknowledgments
	Table of Contents
	Video Contents
1 Recognizing Anything
	An Introduction to Imaging Modalities
	From Darkness … Light
	Conventional Radiography
	The Five Basic Densities
	Radiation Dose and Safety
		Ionizing Radiation in Radiology
		Three Fates of Radiation During an Imaging Procedure
		Measurements of Radiation
		Biological Effects of Radiation
		Types of Biological Effects
		Cancer Development
		Sources of Radiation for Humans
		Relative Radiation Doses of Different Modalities
		Practices for Radiation Safety
		Special Circumstances
	Computed Tomography
	Ultrasonography
	Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	Fluoroscopy
	Nuclear Medicine
	Terminology
		Terminology Conventions Used in This Book
	Conventions Used in This Book
	Weblink
2 Recognizing a Technically Adequate Chest Radiograph
	Evaluating the Chest Radiograph for Technical Adequacy
		Penetration
		Inspiration
		Rotation
		Magnification
		Angulation
	Weblink
3 Recognizing Normal Pulmonary Anatomy
	The Normal Frontal Chest Radiograph
	Normal Pulmonary Vasculature
	The Normal Lateral Chest Radiograph
		Five Key Areas on the Lateral Chest X-Ray (see Fig. 3-3 and Table 3-1)
			The retrosternal clear space
			The hilar region
			The fissures
			The thoracic spine
			The diaphragm and posterior costophrenic sulci
			The posterior costophrenic angles (posterior costophrenic sulci)
	Normal CT Anatomy of the Chest
	Normal CT Anatomy of the Lungs
	The Fissures
	Weblink
4 Recognizing Normal Cardiac Anatomy
	Evaluating the Heart on Chest Radiographs
		Recognizing a Normal-Sized Heart
		The Normal Cardiac Contours
	General Principles
	Evaluating the Heart on Cardiac CT
	Normal Cardiac CT Anatomy
		Five-Vessel Level (Fig. 4-5)
		Aortic Arch Level (Fig. 4-6)
		Aortopulmonary Window Level (Fig. 4-7)
		Main Pulmonary Artery Level (Fig. 4-8)
		High Cardiac Level (Fig. 4-9)
		Low Cardiac Level (Fig. 4-10)
	Uses of Cardiac CT
		CCTA—Normal Anatomy
	Cardiac MRI
		Normal Cardiac MRI Anatomy
	Weblink
5 Recognizing Airspace versus Interstitial Lung Disease
	Classifying Parenchymal Lung Disease
	Characteristics of Airspace Disease
	Some Causes of Airspace Disease
	Characteristics of Interstitial Lung Disease
	Some Causes of Interstitial Lung Disease
		Predominantly Reticular Interstitial Lung Diseases
		Predominantly Nodular Interstitial Diseases
		Mixed Reticular and Nodular Interstitial Disease (Reticulonodular Disease)
		Mixed Airspace and Interstitial Disease
		Tuberculosis
		Primary Pulmonary Tuberculosis
		Postprimary Tuberculosis (“Reactivation TB”)
		Patterns of Distribution of Postprimary Tuberculosis
		Miliary Tuberculosis
	Weblink
6 Recognizing the Causes of an Opacified Hemithorax
	Atelectasis of the Entire Lung
	Massive Pleural Effusion
	Pneumonia of an Entire Lung
	Postpneumonectomy
	Weblink
7 Recognizing Atelectasis
	What is Atelectasis?
	Types of Atelectasis
	Patterns of Collapse in Lobar Atelectasis
	How Atelectasis Resolves
	Weblink
8 Recognizing a Pleural Effusion
	Normal Anatomy and Physiology of the Pleural Space
		Normal Anatomy
		Normal Physiology
	Modalities for Detecting Pleural Effusions
	Causes of Pleural Effusions
	Types of Pleural Effusions
	Side-Specificity of Pleural Effusions
	Recognizing the Different Appearances of Pleural Effusions
		Subpulmonic Effusions
		Blunting of the Costophrenic Angles
		The Meniscus Sign
		Opacified Hemithorax
		Loculated Effusions
		Fissural Pseudotumors
		Laminar Effusions
		Hydropneumothorax
	Weblink
9 Recognizing Pneumonia
	General Considerations
	General Characteristics of Pneumonia
	Patterns of Pneumonia
	Lobar Pneumonia
	Segmental Pneumonia (Bronchopneumonia)
	Interstitial Pneumonia
	Round Pneumonia
	Cavitary Pneumonia
	Aspiration
	Localizing Pneumonia
	How Pneumonia Resolves
	Weblink
10 Recognizing Pneumothorax, Pneumomediastinum, Pneumopericardium, and Subcutaneous Emphysema
	Recognizing a Pneumothorax
		Recognizing the Pitfalls in Overdiagnosing a Pneumothorax
		Types of Pneumothorax
		Causes of a Pneumothorax
		Other Ways to Diagnose a Pneumothorax
		Pulmonary Interstitial Emphysema
	Recognizing Pneumomediastinum
	Recognizing Pneumopericardium
	Recognizing Subcutaneous Emphysema
	Weblink
11 Recognizing the Correct Placement of Lines and Tubes and Their Potential Complications:
	Endotracheal and Tracheostomy Tubes
		Endotracheal Tubes
		Tracheostomy Tubes
	Intravascular Catheters
		Central Venous (Pressure) Catheters
		Peripherally Inserted Central Catheters
		Pulmonary Artery Catheters—Swan-Ganz Catheters
		Multiple Lumen Catheters—Quinton Catheters, Hemodialysis Catheters
		Pleural Drainage Tubes (Chest Tubes, Thoracotomy Tubes)
	Cardiac Devices—Pacemaker, AICD, IABP
		Pacemakers (Box 11-8)
		Automatic Implantable Cardiac Defibrillators
		Intraaortic Counterpulsation Balloon Pump
	GI Tubes and Lines—Nasogastric Tubes, Feeding Tubes
		Nasogastric Tubes
		Feeding Tubes (Dobbhoff Tubes)
	Weblink
12 Recognizing Diseases of the Chest
	Mediastinal Masses
	Anterior Mediastinum
		Thyroid Masses
		Lymphoma
		Thymic Masses
		Teratoma
	Middle Mediastinal Masses
	Posterior Mediastinal Masses
		Neurogenic Tumors
	Solitary Nodule/Mass in the Lung
		Signs of a Benign Versus Malignant Solitary Pulmonary Nodule
		Benign Causes of Solitary Pulmonary Nodules
	Bronchogenic Carcinoma
		Bronchogenic Carcinomas Presenting as a Nodule/Mass in the Lung
		Bronchogenic Carcinoma Presenting with Bronchial Obstruction
		Bronchogenic Carcinoma Presenting with Direct Extension or Metastatic Lesions
	Metastatic Neoplasms in the Lung
		Multiple Nodules
		Lymphangitic Spread of Carcinoma
	Pulmonary Thromboembolic Disease
	Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
	Blebs and Bullae, Cysts and Cavities
		Blebs
		Bullae
		Cysts
		Cavities
	Bronchiectasis
	Weblink
13 Recognizing Adult Heart Disease
	Recognizing an Enlarged Cardiac Silhouette
	Pericardial Effusion
	Extracardiac Causes of Apparent Cardiac Enlargement
	Identifying Cardiac Enlargement on an Ap Chest Radiograph
	Recognizing Cardiomegaly on the Lateral Chest Radiograph
	Recognizing Common Cardiac Diseases
		Congestive Heart Failure
			Pulmonary interstitial edema
				Thickening of the Interlobular Septa—The Kerley B Line
				Peribronchial Cuffing
				Fluid in the Fissures
				Pleural Effusion
			Pulmonary alveolar edema
	Noncardiogenic Pulmonary Edema—General Considerations
	Noncardiogenic Pulmonary Edema—Imaging Findings
	Differentiating Cardiac from Noncardiac Pulmonary Edema
	Hypertensive Cardiovascular Disease
	Mitral Stenosis
	Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
	Aortic Stenosis
	Cardiomyopathy
		Dilated Cardiomyopathy
		Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
		Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
	Aortic Aneurysms— General Considerations
	Recognizing a Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm
	Thoracic Aortic Dissection
	Coronary Artery Disease
	Weblink
14 Recognizing the Normal Abdomen: Conventional Radiology
	Conventional Radiography
	What to Look For
	Normal Bowel Gas Pattern
	Normal Fluid Levels
	Differentiating Large From Small Bowel
	Acute Abdominal Series: the Views and What They Show
		Supine View (“Scout Film”)
		Prone View
		Upright View of the Abdomen
		Upright View of Chest
	Calcifications
	Organomegaly
		Liver
		Spleen
		Kidneys
		Urinary Bladder
		Uterus
		Psoas Muscles
	Weblink
15 Recognizing the Normal Abdomen and Pelvis on Computed Tomography
	Introduction to Abdominal and Pelvic Computed Tomography
		Intravenous Contrast in CT Scanning
		Oral Contrast in CT Scanning
	Abdominal CT: General Considerations
		Liver
		Spleen
		Pancreas
		Kidneys
		Small and Large Bowel
		Urinary Bladder
	Weblink
16 Recognizing Bowel Obstruction and Ileus
	Abnormal Gas Patterns
	Laws of the Gut
	Functional Ileus: Localized Sentinel Loops
	Functional Ileus: Generalized Adynamic Ileus
	Mechanical Obstruction: Small Bowel Obstruction
	Mechanical Obstruction: Large Bowel Obstruction (LBO)
	Volvulus of the Colon
	Intestinal Pseudoobstruction (Ogilvie Syndrome)
	Weblink
17 Recognizing Extraluminal Gas in the Abdomen
	Signs of Free Intraperitoneal Air
	Air Beneath the Diaphragm
	Visualization of Both Sides of the Bowel Wall
	Visualization of the Falciform Ligament
	Causes of Free Air
	Signs of Extraperitoneal Air (Retroperitoneal Air)
	Causes of Extraperitoneal Air
	Signs of Air in the Bowel Wall
	Causes and Significance of Air in the Bowel Wall
	Signs of Air in the Biliary System
	Causes of Air in the Biliary System
	Weblink
18 Recognizing Abnormal Calcifications and Their Causes
	Patterns of Calcification
	Rimlike Calcification
	Linear or Tracklike Calcification
	Lamellar or Laminar Calcification
	Cloudlike, Amorphous, or Popcorn Calcification
	Location of Calcification
	Weblink
19 Recognizing the Imaging Findings of Trauma
	Chest Trauma
	Rib Fractures
	Pulmonary Contusions
	Pulmonary Lacerations (Hematoma or Traumatic Pneumatocele)
	Aortic Trauma
	Abdominal Trauma
		Liver
		Spleen
		Kidneys
		Shock Bowel
	Pelvic Trauma
		Rupture of the Urinary Bladder
		Urethral Injuries
	Weblink
20 Recognizing Gastrointestinal, Hepatic, and Urinary Tract Abnormalities
	Esophagus
		Esophageal Diverticula
		Esophageal Carcinoma
		Hiatal Hernia and Gastroesophageal Reflux
	Stomach and Duodenum
		Gastric Ulcers
		Gastric Carcinoma
	Duodenal Ulcer
	Small and Large Bowel
		General Considerations
		Small Bowel—Crohn Disease
	Large Bowel
		Diverticulosis
		Diverticulitis
		Colonic Polyps
		Colonic Carcinoma
		Colitis
		Appendicitis
	Pancreas
		Pancreatitis
		Chronic Pancreatitis
		Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma
	Hepatobiliary Abnormalities
		Liver—General Considerations
		Fatty Infiltration
		Cirrhosis
	Space-Occupying Lesions of the Liver
		Metastases
		Hepatocellular Carcinoma (Hepatoma)
		Cavernous Hemangiomas
		Hepatic Cysts
	Biliary System
		Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography
	Urinary Tract
		Kidneys—General Considerations
		Space-Occupying Lesions
			Renal cysts
			Renal cell carcinoma (hypernephroma)
	Pelvis
		General Considerations
	Urinary Bladder
		Bladder Tumors
	Adenopathy
		Lymphoma
	Weblink
21 Ultrasonography: Understanding the Principles and Recognizing Normal and Abnormal Findings
	How It Works
	Doppler Ultrasonography
	Adverse Effects or Safety Issues
	Medical Uses of Ultrasonography
		Biliary System
			Normal ultrasound anatomy
			Gallstones and acute cholecystitis
			Bile ducts
		Urinary Tract
			Normal ultrasound anatomy
			Hydronephrosis
			Medical renal disease
			Urinary bladder
			Scrotal ultrasound
		Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms
		Female Pelvic Organs
			Normal US anatomy of the uterus
			Uterine leiomyomas (fibroids)
			Adenomyosis
			Ovarian cysts, tumors, and pelvic inflammatory disease
			Normal ovarian anatomy and physiology
			Ovarian cysts
			Ovarian tumors
			Pelvic inflammatory disease
		Ascites
		Appendicitis
		Pregnancy
			Ectopic pregnancy
			Fetal abnormalities
			Molar pregnancy
		Vascular Ultrasound
			Carotid artery stenosis
			Deep venous thrombosis (DVT)
	Weblink
22 Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Understanding the Principles and Recognizing the Basics
	How Magnetic Resonance Imaging Works
	Hardware That Makes Up an MRI Scanner
		Main Magnet
		Coils
		Computer
	What Happens Once Scanning Begins
		Pulse Sequences
		Repetition Time and Echo Time
	How Can You Identify a T1-Weighted or T2-Weighted Image?
		Bright Versus Dark
		Suppression
		Other Pulse Sequence Types
	MRI Contrast Agents: General Considerations
	MRI Safety Issues
		Claustrophobia
		Ferromagnetic Objects
		Mechanical or Electrical Devices
		Can a Patient with an Implanted Medical Device Undergo an MRI Examination?
		Pregnant Patients
		Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis
	Diagnostic Applications of MRI
	Weblink
23 Recognizing Abnormalities of Bone Density
	Normal Bone Anatomy
		Conventional Radiography
		Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	The Effect of Bone Physiology on Bone Anatomy
	Recognizing a Generalized Increase in Bone Density
		Osteoblastic Metastatic Disease
	Recognizing a Focal Increase in Bone Density
		Carcinoma of the Prostate
		Avascular Necrosis of Bone
		Paget Disease
	Recognizing a Generalized Decrease in Bone Density
		Osteoporosis
		Hyperparathyroidism
	Recognizing a Focal Decrease in Bone Density
		Osteolytic Metastatic Disease
		Multiple Myeloma
		Osteomyelitis
	Pathologic Fractures
	Weblink
24 Recognizing Fractures and Dislocations
	Recognizing an Acute Fracture
	Recognizing Dislocations and Subluxations
	Describing Fractures
	How Fractures are Described—by the Number of Fracture Fragments
	How Fractures are Described—by the Direction of the Fracture Line (Table 24-4)
	How Fractures are Described—by the Relationship of One Fracture Fragment to Another
	How Fractures are Described—by the Relationship of the Fracture to the Atmosphere
	Avulsion Fractures
		Salter-Harris Fractures—Epiphyseal Plate Fractures in Children
		Child Abuse
	Stress Fractures
	Common Fracture Eponyms
	Some Easily Missed Fractures or Dislocations
	Fracture Healing
	Weblink
25 Recognizing Joint Disease:
	Anatomy of a Joint
	Classification of Arthritis
	Hypertrophic Arthritis
		Primary Osteoarthritis (Also Known as Primary Degenerative Arthritis, Degenerative Joint Disease—DJD)
		Secondary Osteoarthritis (Secondary Degenerative Arthritis)
		Erosive Osteoarthritis
		Charcot Arthropathy (Neuropathic Joint)
		Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease (Pyrophosphate Arthropathy)
	Erosive Arthritis
		Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
		Gout
		Psoriatic Arthritis
		Ankylosing Spondylitis
	Infectious Arthritis
	Weblink
26 Recognizing Some Common Causes of Neck and Back Pain
	Conventional Radiography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, and Computed Tomography
	The Normal Spine
		Vertebral Body
		Intervertebral Disks
		Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
		Spinal Ligaments
		Normal MRI Appearance of the Spine
	Back Pain
		Herniated Disks
		Degenerative Disk Disease (DDD)
		Osteoarthritis of the Facet Joints
		Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis
		Compression Fractures of the Spine
		Spinal Stenosis
	Malignancy Involving the Spine
	MRI in Metastatic Spine Disease
	Spinal Trauma
		Jefferson Fracture
		Hangman’s Fracture
		Burst Fractures
		Chance Fracture
		Locked Facets
	Weblink
27 Recognizing Some Common Causes of Intracranial Pathology
	Normal Anatomy (Fig. 27-1)
	MRI and the Brain
	Head Trauma
		Skull Fractures
			Linear skull fractures
			Depressed skull fractures
			Basilar skull fractures
		Facial Fractures
	Intracranial Hemorrhage
		Epidural Hematoma (Extradural Hematoma)
		Subdural Hematoma (SDH)
		Intracerebral Hematoma (Intracerebral Hemorrhage)
	Diffuse Axonal Injury
	Increased Intracranial Pressure
		Cerebral Edema
	Stroke
		General Considerations
		Ischemic Stroke
		Hemorrhagic Stroke
	Ruptured Aneurysms
	Hydrocephalus
		Obstructive Hydrocephalus
		Normal-Pressure Hydrocephalus
	Cerebral Atrophy
	Brain Tumors
		Gliomas of the Brain
		Metastases
		Meningioma
		Vestibular Schwannoma (Acoustic Neuroma)
	Other Diseases
		Multiple Sclerosis
	Neuroimaging Terminology
	Weblink
28 Recognizing Pediatric Diseases
	Conditions Discussed in This Chapter
	Newborn Respiratory Distress
		Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn
		Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn (Hyaline Membrane Disease)
		Meconium Aspiration Syndrome
		Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (Chronic Respiratory Insufficiency of the Premature)
	Childhood Lung Disease
		Reactive Airways Disease/Bronchiolitis
		Asthma
		Pneumonia
	Soft Tissues of the Neck
		Enlarged Tonsils and Adenoids
		Epiglottitis
		Croup (Laryngotracheobronchitis)
	Ingested Foreign Bodies
	Other Diseases
		Recognizing Cardiomegaly in Infants
		Salter-Harris Classification of Epiphyseal Plate Fractures in Children
		Child Abuse
		Necrotizing Enterocolitis
		Esophageal Atresia with/without Tracheoesophageal Fistula (TEF)
	Weblink
Nuclear Medicine:
	How It Works
	Radioactive Decay
	Half-Life
	Nuclear Medicine Equipment
	Detecting and Measuring the Radioactivity of an Isotope
	Nuclear Medicine Safety
	Commonly Used Nuclear Medicine Studies
	Bone Scanning
		Metastases to Bone
		Osteomyelitis
	Pulmonary Ventilation/Perfusion Scans for Pulmonary Embolism
	Cardiac Scanning
		Myocardial Perfusion Scanning
		Wall Motion
	Thyroid Scintigraphy
	Biliary Scanning
		HIDA Scans
	GI Bleeding Scans
		Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
	Uses of PET Scans
		Safety Issues and PET Scans
		PET Scan Images
The ABCs of Heart Disease:
	Heart Size
	Cardiac Contours—Ascending Aorta
	Cardiac Contours—“Double Density” of Left Atrial Enlargement
	Cardiac Contours—Right Atrium
	Cardiac Contours—Aortic Knob
	Cardiac Contours—Main Pulmonary Artery
	Cardiac Contours—Concavity for Left Atrium
	Cardiac Contours—Left Ventricle
	Cardiac Contours—Descending Aorta
	The Pulmonary Vasculature—Normal
	Pulmonary Vasculature—Pulmonary Venous Hypertension
	Pulmonary Vasculature—Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
	Pulmonary Vasculature—Increased Flow to the Lungs
	Pulmonary Vasculature—Decreased Flow to the Lungs
	The Abcs of the Heart Disease System
	Is the Left Atrium Enlarged?
	Is the Main Pulmonary Artery Big or Bulbous?
	Is the Main Pulmonary Artery Segment Concave?
	Is the Heart a Dilated or Delta-Shaped Heart?
	Other Facts
	The Abcs of Heart Disease in Schematic Form
Appendix What to order when
Bibliography
	Texts
	Journal Articles
Chapter 1 Quiz Answers
Appendix Unknown Cases: Additional Information
	Introduction
	Acute Subdural Hematoma
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Differential diagnosis
			Treatment
			References
	Anterior Dislocation of the Shoulder
		Explanation
			Dislocation of the shoulder
			Complications
			Reference
	Boerhaave Syndrome
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Boerhaave syndrome
			Imaging findings
			Method of study
			Reference
	Cardiogenic and Noncardiogenic Pulmonary Edema
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Pathophysiology
			Causes
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Differential diagnosis
			Treatment
			Reference
	Central Venous Catheter in Pleural Space
		Explanation
			Critical care lines and tubes
			Tracheostomy
			Intravascular lines
			Pulmonary artery catheters
			Pleural drainage tubes
			Cardiac devices
			GI tubes and lines
			Reference
	Child Abuse
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Clinical findings
			Sites of skeletal trauma
			Appearances of skeletal trauma
			Head trauma (13% to 25%)
			Viscera (3%)
			Differential diagnosis of child abuse
			Reference
	Dissecting Aortic Aneurysm
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Predisposing factors
			Aneurysm defined by size criteria
			Vessels involved with dissection
			Types
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Diagnosis
			Prognosis
			Reference
	Epiglottitis
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Differential diagnosis
			Treatment
			Complications
			Reference
	Flail Chest
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Treatment
			Complications
			Prognosis
			Reference
	Free Intraperitoneal Air (Pneumoperitoneum)
		Explanation
			Etiologies
			Imaging findings
			Reference
	Hangman’s Fracture of C2 (Traumatic Spondylolisthesis)
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Treatment
			Prognosis
			References
	Intussusception
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Etiology/pathophysiology
			Epidemiology
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Treatment
			Reference
	Ischemic Stroke
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Treatment
			Prognosis
			Reference
	Jefferson Fracture
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Mechanism
			Associated injuries
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Treatment
			Reference
	Large Pleural Effusion
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Subpulmonic effusion
			Laminar effusion
			Loculated effusion
			Pseudotumor of the lung
			Reference
	Malpositioned Dobbhoff Tube in Right Lower Lobe
		Explanation
			Dobbhoff feeding tubes
			Reference
	Malpositioned Endotracheal Tube
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Reference
	Mechanical Small Bowel Obstruction
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Causes
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Treatment of small bowel obstruction
			Reference
	Pneumococcal Pneumonia
		Explanation
			Gram positive pneumonias
			Gram-negative pneumonias
			Reference
	Pneumomediastinum
		Explanation
			Pneumomediastinum
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings of pneumomediastinum
			Reference
	Rigler Sign Free Air
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Differential diagnosis
			Reference
	Salter Iii Fracture of Capitellum
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Salter-Harris I fractures
			Salter-Harris II fractures
			Salter-Harris III fractures
			Salter-Harris IV fractures
			Salter-Harris V fractures
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Complications
			Reference
	Sigmoid Volvulus
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Pathophysiology
			Clinical findings
			Differential diagnosis
			Complications
			Treatment
			Reference
	Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
		Explanation
			General considerations
			Causes of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH)
			Risk factors
			Clinical findings
			Imaging findings
			Treatment
			Complications
			Prognosis
			Reference
	Tension Pneumothorax
		Explanation
			Types of pneumothorax
			Imaging findings in pneumothorax
			Radiographic signs in upright position
			Radiographic signs in supine position
	Reference
Unknown Cases Quiz
	Question 1
	Question 2
	Question 3
	Question 4
	Question 5
	Question 6
	Question 7
	Question 8
	Question 9
	Question 10
	Question 11
	Question 12
	Question 13
	Question 14
	Question 15
	Question 16
	Question 17
	Question 18
	Question 19
	Question 20
	Question 21
	Question 22
	Question 23
	Question 24
	Question 25
Index
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