Learning and Memory: From Brain to Behavior

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Dedication Page......Page 5
ABOUT THE AUTHORS......Page 6
BRIEF CONTENTS......Page 7
Research Focus......Page 18
Purposeful Pedagogy......Page 19
Diploma Computerized Test Bank (Available in Windows and Macintosh on one CD-ROM)......Page 20
Acknowledgments......Page 21
To Our Readers......Page 24
Half-Title Page......Page 25
CONTENTS......Page 9
CHAPTER 1: The Psychology of Learning and Memory......Page 27
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory......Page 29
Aristotle and Associationism......Page 30
Descartes and Dualism......Page 32
John Locke and Empiricism......Page 33
William James and Models of Association......Page 34
Evolution and Natural Selection......Page 36
Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection......Page 37
Francis Galton: Variability of Nature......Page 39
Unsolved Mysteries: Can Learning Influence Evolution?......Page 40
Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments......Page 42
Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning......Page 44
Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect......Page 46
John Watson and Behaviorism......Page 48
Clark Hull and Mathematical Models of Learning......Page 50
B. F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism......Page 51
Edward Tolman: Cognitive Maps......Page 53
The Cognitive Approach......Page 54
W. K. Estes and Mathematical Psychology......Page 55
Gordon Bower: Learning by Insight......Page 57
George Miller and Information Theory......Page 58
Herbert Simon and Symbol-Manipulation Models......Page 60
David Rumelhart and Connectionist Models......Page 61
CHAPTER 2: The Neuroscience of Learning and Memory......Page 69
The Brain and Nervous System......Page 70
The Human Brain......Page 72
Comparative Brain Anatomy......Page 73
Learning without a Brain......Page 74
The Dark Ages of Brain Science......Page 75
Structural Neuroimaging: Looking Inside the Living Brain......Page 77
From Brain to Behavior......Page 78
Behavior without the Brain: Spinal Reflexes......Page 79
Incoming Stimuli: Sensory Pathways into the Brain......Page 80
Outgoing Responses: Motor Control......Page 81
Observing Brain Systems in Action......Page 82
Experimental Brain Lesions......Page 83
Functional Neuroimaging: Watching the Brain in Action......Page 85
Unsolved Mysteries: What Do Functional Imaging Methods Really Measure?......Page 88
Electroencephalography: Charting Brain Waves......Page 89
The Neuron......Page 91
The Synapse: Where Neurons Connect......Page 92
Recording from Neurons......Page 94
Stimulating Neurons into Activity......Page 96
Manipulating Neuronal Function with Drugs......Page 97
Snynaptic Plasticity......Page 98
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Can a Pill Improve Your Memory?......Page 99
Long-Term Potentiation......Page 100
How is LTP Implemented in a Neuron?......Page 102
Long-Term Depression......Page 103
CHAPTER 3: Episodic and Semantic Memory: Memory for Facts and Events......Page 109
Episodic (Event) Memories and Semantic (Fact) Memories......Page 110
Differences between Episodic and Semantic Memory......Page 111
Can Nonhumans Have Episodic Memory?......Page 112
How Humans Acquire and Use Episodic and Semantic Memories......Page 114
Memory Is Better for Information That Relates to Prior Knowledge......Page 115
Deeper Processing at Encoding Improves Recognition Later......Page 116
The Forgetting Curve and Consolidation......Page 117
Transfer-Appropriate Processing......Page 119
When Memory Fails......Page 120
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Total Recall! The Truth about Extraordinary Memorizers......Page 121
Interference......Page 122
Source Amnesia......Page 123
False Memory......Page 124
Models of Semantic Memory......Page 126
The Cerebral Cortex and Semantic Memory......Page 128
The Medial Temporal Lobes and Memory Storage......Page 130
The Hippocampal Region and Memory in Nonhuman Animals......Page 131
Hippocampal Function in the Healthy Brain......Page 133
Hippocampal-Cortical Interaction in Memory Consolidation......Page 134
The Role of the Frontal Cortex in Memory Storage and Retrieval......Page 136
Unsolved Mysteries: Are There Different Brain Substrates for Episodic and Semantic Memory?......Page 137
The Diencephalon May Help Guide Consolidation......Page 139
The Basal Forebrain May Help Determine What the Hippocampus Stores......Page 140
Transient Global Amnesia......Page 141
Functional Amnesia......Page 142
Infantile Amnesia......Page 143
CHAPTER 4: Skill Memory: Learning by Doing......Page 151
Qualities of Skill Memory......Page 152
Cognitive Skills......Page 153
Expertise and Talent......Page 156
Acquiring Skills......Page 159
Implicit Learning......Page 162
Unsolved Mysteries: Why Can’t Experts Verbalize What They Do?......Page 164
Retention and Forgetting......Page 165
Transfer of Training......Page 166
Motor Programs and Rules......Page 167
Stages of Acquisition......Page 168
Brain Substrates......Page 170
The Basal Ganglia and Skill Learning......Page 171
Learning Deficits after Lesions......Page 172
Neural Activity during Perceptual-Motor Skill Learning......Page 174
Brain Activity during Cognitive Skill Learning......Page 176
Cortical Expansion......Page 177
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Are Video Games Good for the Brain?......Page 178
Are Skill Memories Stored in the Cortex?......Page 180
The Cerebellum and Timing......Page 181
Clinical Perspectives......Page 184
Apraxia......Page 185
Huntington’s Disease......Page 187
Parkinson’s Disease......Page 188
CHAPTER 5: Working Memory and Executive Control......Page 195
Sensory Memory......Page 196
Short-Term Memory......Page 197
Transferring Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory......Page 198
Baddeley’s Working-Memory Model......Page 199
The Phonological Loop......Page 200
The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad......Page 201
Controlled Updating of Short-Term Memory Buffers......Page 203
Task Switching......Page 206
Stimulus Selection and Response Inhibition......Page 207
Unsolved Mysteries: Is Working Memory the Key to Intelligence?......Page 208
Brain Substrates......Page 209
Behavioral Consequences of Frontal Lobe Damage......Page 210
Dysexecutive Syndrome and Working-Memory Deficits in Patients with Frontal- Lobe Damage......Page 211
Functional Neuroanatomy of the Prefrontal Cortex......Page 212
Frontal Brain Activity during Working-Memory Tasks......Page 213
Mapping Baddeley’s Model onto PFC Anatomy......Page 215
Maintenance (Rehearsal) versus Manipulation (Executive Control)......Page 216
The Visuo-Spatial and Phonological-Verbal Buffers......Page 217
Prefrontal Control of Long-Term Declarative Memory......Page 219
Schizophrenia......Page 223
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)......Page 225
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Improving Your Working Memory......Page 226
CHAPTER 6: Non-Associative Learning:Learning about Repeated Events......Page 231
Learning about Repeated Stimuli......Page 232
The Process of Habituation......Page 233
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Sex on the Beach......Page 235
The Process of Sensitization......Page 236
Priming......Page 237
Mere Exposure Learning......Page 238
Discrimination Training......Page 239
Spatial Learning......Page 240
Dual Process Theory......Page 243
Comparator Models......Page 244
Brain Substrates......Page 245
Invertebrate Model Systems......Page 246
Habituation in Sea Slugs......Page 247
Sensitization in Sea Slugs......Page 248
Perceptual Learning and Cortical Plasticity......Page 250
Cortical Changes after Mere Exposure......Page 251
Plasticity during Development......Page 253
Hebbian Learning......Page 254
Unsolved Mysteries: Why Did Cerebral Cortex Evolve?......Page 255
The Hippocampus and Spatial Learning......Page 256
Identifying Places......Page 257
Place Fields Are Not Maps......Page 258
Landmark Agnosia......Page 260
Rehabilitation after Stroke......Page 261
Man-Machine Interfaces......Page 262
CHAPTER 7: Classical Conditioning: Learning to Predict Important Events......Page 269
Basic Concepts of Classical Conditioning......Page 270
Varieties of Conditioning......Page 271
Extinguishing an Old Association......Page 275
Conditioned Compensatory Responses......Page 277
What Cues Can Be CSs or USs?......Page 278
Kamin’s Blocking Effect......Page 279
The Rescorla–Wagner Model and Error-Correction Learning......Page 280
Compound Conditioning......Page 283
The Rescorla–Wagner Model Explains Blocking......Page 286
From Conditioning to Category Learning......Page 287
Cue–Outcome Contingency and Judgments of Causality......Page 289
A Neural Network Model of Probabilistic Category Learning......Page 290
Modulation of CS Processing......Page 292
An Attentional Explanation of Latent Inhibition......Page 293
Timing......Page 294
Associative Bias and Ecological Constraints......Page 296
Brain Substrates......Page 297
Mammalian Conditioning of Motor Reflexes......Page 298
Electrophysiological Recording in the Cerebellum......Page 299
Brain Stimulation Substitutes for Behavioral Training......Page 301
Conditioning Is Impaired When the Cerebellum Is Damaged......Page 302
Inhibitory Feedback Computes Error Correction......Page 303
The Hippocampus in CS Modulation......Page 304
Unsolved Mysteries: Riding the Brain’s Waves into Memory......Page 305
Invertebrates and the Cellular Basis of Learning......Page 306
Clinical Perspectives......Page 310
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Kicking the Habit......Page 313
CHAPTER 8: Instrumental Conditioning: Learning the Consequences of Behavior......Page 319
The “Discovery” of Instrumental Conditioning......Page 320
Free-Operant Learning......Page 321
Components of the Learned Association......Page 323
Stimuli......Page 324
Responses......Page 325
Consequences......Page 327
Putting It All Together: Building the S-R-C Association......Page 329
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: The Problem with Punishment......Page 330
Timing Affects Learning......Page 331
Consequences Can Be Added or Subtracted......Page 333
Schedules of Reinforcement......Page 336
Unsolved Mysteries: Instinctive Drift......Page 339
Variable-Interval Schedules and the Matching Law......Page 340
Behavioral Economics and the Bliss Point......Page 341
The Premack Principle: Responses as Reinforcers......Page 342
The Basal Ganglia and Instrumental Conditioning......Page 344
Mechanisms of Reinforcement in the Brain......Page 345
Electrical Brain Stimulation......Page 346
Dopamine and Reinforcement......Page 347
Opioids and Hedonic Value......Page 352
Clinical Perspectives......Page 353
Drug Addiction......Page 354
Behavioral Addiction......Page 356
Treatments......Page 357
CHAPTER 9: Generalization, Discrimination, and the Representation of Similarity......Page 363
When Similar Stimuli Predict Similar Consequences......Page 364
Generalization as a Search for Similar Consequences......Page 366
The Challenge of Incorporating Similarity into Learning Models......Page 367
Shared Elements and Distributed Representations......Page 369
When Similar Stimuli Predict Different Consequences......Page 373
Discrimination Training and Learned Specificity......Page 374
Unsolved Mysteries: Why Are Some Feature Pairs Easier to Discriminate between Than Others?......Page 375
Negative Patterning: Differentiating Configurations from Their Individual Components......Page 376
Configural Learning in Categorization......Page 379
When Dissimilar Stimuli Predict the Same Consequences......Page 381
Sensory Preconditioning: Similar Predictions for Co-occurring Stimuli......Page 382
Acquired Equivalence: Novel Similar Predictions Based on Prior Similar Consequences......Page 383
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Stereotypes and Discrimination in Generalizing about Other People......Page 384
Brain Substrates......Page 387
Cortical Representations of Sensory Stimuli......Page 388
Shared-Elements Models of Receptive Fields......Page 390
Topographic Organization and Generalization......Page 392
Plasticity of Cortical Representations......Page 393
The Hippocampal Region......Page 395
Modeling the Role of the Hippocampus in Adaptive Representations......Page 396
Clinical Perspectives......Page 397
Generalization Transfer and Hippocampal Atrophy in the Elderly......Page 398
Rehabilitation of Language-Learning-Impaired Children......Page 399
CHAPTER 10: Emotional Learning and Memory......Page 407
What Is Emotion?......Page 408
Autonomic Arousal and the Fight-or-Flight Response......Page 409
Which Comes First, the Biological Response or the Conscious Feeling......Page 410
Do Animals Have Emotions?......Page 413
Emotion and Encoding of Memories......Page 415
Flashbulb Memories......Page 416
Can Flashbulb Memories Be Trusted......Page 417
Unsolved Mysteries: Can People Forget, Then Recover, Traumatic Memories?......Page 419
Conditioned Emotional Responses: Learning to Predict Danger......Page 420
Learned Helplessness......Page 422
Brain Substrates......Page 425
The Amygdala and Learning of Emotional Responses......Page 426
Two Pathways for Emotional Learning in the Amygdala......Page 428
Stress Hormones and the Emotional Modulation of Memory......Page 430
Encoding Emotional Contexts with the Hippocampus......Page 433
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: A Little Stress Is a Good Thing......Page 434
Feelings and the Frontal Lobes......Page 435
Phobias......Page 438
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 440
CHAPTER 11: Observational Learning: Watching, Listening, and Remembering......Page 447
Learning by Copying......Page 448
True Imitation: Copying Actions......Page 451
Emulation: Copying Goals......Page 454
Stimulus Matching: Copying Outcomes of Specific Actions......Page 455
Social Learning Theory......Page 457
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: What Can a Child Learn from a Teletubby?......Page 459
Contagion and Observational Conditioning......Page 460
Stimulus Enhancement......Page 461
Social Transmission of Information......Page 463
Learning through Social Conformity......Page 464
Active Instruction and Culture......Page 466
Effects of Violent Entertainment on Behavior......Page 467
Brain Substrates......Page 470
Mirror Neurons in the Cortex......Page 471
Song Learning in Bird Brains: Replicating Observed Events......Page 474
Unsolved Mysteries: Why Can’t Most Mammals Imitate Sounds?......Page 476
Hippocampal Encoding of Socially Transmitted Food Preferences......Page 477
Clinical Perspectives......Page 478
Imitation in Autistic Individuals......Page 479
Effects of Frontal Lobe Lesions on Imitation......Page 481
CHAPTER 12: Learning and Memory across the Lifespan......Page 489
Some Learning Can Occur before Birth!......Page 490
Conditioning and Skill Learning in Young Children......Page 492
Development of Episodic and Semantic Memory......Page 493
Development of Working Memory......Page 494
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Can Exposure to Classical Music Make Babies Smarter?......Page 495
Imprinting......Page 496
Social Attachment Learning......Page 497
Conditioning and Skill Learning Decline—But Well-Learned Skills Survive......Page 498
Episodic and Semantic Memory: Old Memories Fare Better than New Learning......Page 499
The Genetic Basis of Learning and Memory......Page 500
Genetic Variation among Individual Affects Innate Learning Abilities......Page 501
Selective Breeding and Twin Studies......Page 503
The Influence of Environment......Page 505
Neurons Are Overproduced, Then Weeded Out......Page 506
Synapses Are Also Formed, Then Pruned......Page 507
Sensitive Periods for Learning Reflect Sensitive Periods for Neuronal Wiring......Page 508
The Promise of Stem Cells for Brain Repair......Page 509
Effects of Sex Hormones on Brain Organization......Page 510
Effects of Sex Hormones on Adult Behavior......Page 511
Parts of the Aging Brain Lose Neurons and Synapses......Page 512
Synaptic Connections May Be Less Stable in Old Age......Page 513
New Neurons for Old Brains? Adult Neurogenesis......Page 514
Down Syndrome......Page 516
Brain Abnormalities and Memory Impairments......Page 517
Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 518
Plaques and Tangles in the Brain......Page 519
Genetic Basis of Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 520
A Connection between Down Syndrome and Alzheimer’s Disease?......Page 521
Unsolved Mysteries: Treating (and Preventing) Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 522
CHAPTER 13: Language Learning: Communication and Cognition......Page 527
What Is Language?......Page 528
Identifying Words......Page 529
Stages of Language Lea......Page 531
Second Language Learning......Page 534
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life: Teaching Babies Signs before Speech......Page 535
Distinguishing Speech Sounds......Page 536
Animals Learning English......Page 537
Instructing Dolphins with Gestures......Page 538
Learning Syllabic Sequences......Page 539
Communicating with Apes......Page 540
Is There a Language Organ?......Page 542
Broca’s Area......Page 543
Wernicke’s Area......Page 544
Unsolved Mysteries: Can Computers Master Human Language?......Page 545
Age-Dependent Reorganization......Page 546
Activation Changes Associated with Language Learning......Page 547
Physical Changes Induced by Language Learning......Page 548
A Contemporary Model of Language Processing in the Brain......Page 550
Clinical Perspectives......Page 552
Sign Language......Page 553
Language Learning in Isolation......Page 554
Glossary......Page 561
References......Page 573
Name Index......Page 613
Subject Index......Page 625