Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete

0-0 - Front Matter
	Front Matter
0-1 - Copyright
	Copyright
0-2 - Author Biographies
	Author Biographies
0-3 - Foreword
	Foreword
0-4 - Preface
	Preface
0-5 - International Cement Congresses
	International Cement Congresses
0-6 - Abbreviated Formulae
	Abbreviated Formulae
1 - The History of Calcareous Cements
	The History of Calcareous Cements
		Prehistory
		The Classical World
		The Middle Ages
		The Augustan Age
		John Smeaton, 1756
		James Parker\'s Discovery of Roman Cement, 1796
		French Investigation, 1805-13
		Louis Joseph Vicat, 1812-18
		Early Specifications for Artificial Cements, 1811-30
		Aspdin\'s Patent for Portland Cement, 1824
		The `Proto-Portland ERA, 1824-44
		William Aspdin and `Meso-Portland Cements
		Adoption of Portland Cement in Major Projects
		Testing and Improvements in Quality Control
		The Advent of `Modern Portland Cement, 1887-1904
		Evolution of `Modern Portland Cements in the 20th Century
			Strength
			Soundness
			Setting Times
		Expansion of Manufacturing Output
		Special Portland-Based Cements
		Supplementary Cementitious Materials
		Non-Portland Cements
		The Scientific Study of Cements
			Symposia on the Chemistry of Cement
			Literature
		Sources
		References
2 - Manufacture of Portland Cement
	Manufacture of Portland Cement
		Raw Materials for Clinker Manufacture
			Chemical Targets for Raw Meal
				Quarried Raw Materials
					Limestone
				Non-Calcareous Components
			Secondary Raw Materials
		Recipe
		Kiln Systems
			Preparation of Feedstock and Grinding
			Thermal Process: Meal Chemical Reactions
		Clinker Minerals
		Fuels and Combustion: Influences on the Manufacturing Process
			Coal
			Alternative Fuels
		Environment: Emissions to Atmosphere of SO3, NOx, VOC, CO, Dust, Hg, Cd and Tl
			SO3
			NOx
			VOC and CO
			Dust
			Metallic Minerals
		Circulation Phenomena and Bypass
			Sulfur and Chloride Cycles
			Potential to Control the Sulfur Cycle
		Clinker Cooling
		Mass and Heat Balance
		Clinker Grinding
			Ball Mills
			Vertical Mills
			The Performance of Ball Mill Relative to Vertical Mills
			Particle Size Distribution
			Characterisation of Separator Efficiency in a Ball Mill Circuit18
			Measurement of PSD
		References
3 - Components in Portland Cement Clinker and Their Phase Relationships
	Components in Portland Cement Clinker and Their Phase Relationships
		Introduction
		Phase Diagrams
			Binary Diagrams and the Phase Rule
			Ternary Diagrams
			Isothermal Sections
			Isoplethic Sections
			General Rules for Interpreting Phase Diagrams
		Oxide Components of Cements
			Characteristics of Oxide Components
		Cement-Related Systems
			Systems Containing Major Components
				The System CaO-SiO2
					Calcium Orthosilicates
				The System CaO-Al2O3
			Ternary Systems
				The System CaO-Al2O3-SiO2
				Quaternary System CaO-Al2O3-Fe2O3-SiO2
			Systems Containing Minor Components
				Phase Diagrams With Minor Components
					The System CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2
					Effect of MgO on the CaO-Al2O3-Fe2O3 SiO2 System
					Effect of SO3 and Alkalis (Na2O and K2O)
					Phosphates
					Borates
					Titanium Oxide
					Fluorides and Fluorosilicates
				Thermodynamic Stability With Minor Components
		References
		Further Reading
4 - Constitution and Specification of Portland Cement
	Constitution and Specification of Portland Cement
		Introduction
		Raw Materials
			Primary Raw Material, Limestone
			Secondary Raw Materials
				Clay or Shale
				Fly Ash
				Blastfurnace Slag
				CO2 Emissions
			Extraction of Raw Materials
				Block Model
				Quarrying
		Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of Clinker
		Tricalcium Silicate (Alite)
		Dicalcium Silicate (Belite)
		Tricalcium Aluminate (Aluminate)
		Aluminoferrite Phase (Ferrite)
		Clinker Phases in Industrial Clinker
		Compound Composition of Clinker
		Burnability
		Chief Chemical Parameters of Clinker
		Lime Saturation Factor
		Silica Ratio
		Alumina to Iron Ratio
		Effect of Raw Material Properties on Clinkering
			Fly Ash as Raw Material for Clinker
			Blastfurnace Slag as Raw Material for Clinker
		The Clinkering Process
			Transition to Clinker
				Formation of C2S
				Formation of C3S
				Crystallisation of the Liquid Phase
		Minor Constituents**In acknowledgement, Section 4.9 has been taken from Section 5.4 of Chapter 5 of the 4th ed. of L ...
		Viscosity and Surface Tension of the Melt
		Influence on Sintering
		Distribution of Minor Catatonic Components in Clinker Phases
		Magnesium Oxide
		Alkalis and Sulfate
		Fluorine
		Boric Acid
		Analysis of Clinker and Cement
			Chemical and Mineralogical Analysis
			Microscopy and Interpretation in Terms of Clinker Quality and Process Efficiency
				Alite Characteristics
				Belite Characteristics
				Liquid Phase Characteristics
			Measurement of the Fineness of Cement
		Effects of Milling
			The Effects of Milling on Quality
				Particle Size Distribution
				Gypsum Optimisation (SO3)
				Optimise the Blend
				`Grinding Aids
		Hydration of Portland Cement
			Reactivity of the Clinker Phases
				Calcium Silicate Hydrate
				Calcium Hydroxide
				AFm and Aft
			Pozzolanas and Latent Hydraulic Materials
				Pozzolanas
				Latent Hydraulic Binders
			Cement Hydration with Fly Ash and Blastfurnace Slag
				Reaction of Fly Ash With Portland Cement
				Reaction of ggbs With Portland Cement
		Specification of Portland Cement
			European Cement Standards
				EN 197 CEM I
				EN 197 CEM II
				EN 197 CEM III
				EN 197 CEM IV
				EN 197 CEM V
			Australian Cement Standards
			American Cement Standards
			Comparison of Equivalent Cements
			Other Cementitious Constituents
				Fly Ash
				Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag
				Amorphous Silica (Silica Fume)
		References
		Further Reading
5 - Hydration, Setting and Hardening of Portland Cement
	Hydration, Setting and Hardening of Portland Cement
		Introduction
			General
			Experimental Considerations
		Hydration of Pure Clinker Minerals
			Tricalcium Silicate
				Kinetics of Hydration
				Seeding
				Composition of the Liquid Phase
				Mechanism of Hydration
				CaCO3 Addition
				C-S-H Phase
				Calcium Hydroxide
				Microstructure of Hydrated C3S Pastes
			Dicalcium Silicate
				Kinetics of Hydration
				Mechanism of Hydration
				Structure of Hydrated Dicalcium Silicate Paste
			Tricalcium Aluminate
				Hydration of C3A in the Absence of Calcium Sulfates
				Hydration of C3A in the Presence of Calcium Sulfate
				Hydration of C3A in Presence of Calcium Carbonate
				Low Porosity C3A and CA Systems
			Calcium Aluminoferrite
				Low Porosity C4AF Systems
		Interactions in the Hydration of Clinker Minerals
			βC2S-C3S System
			C3S-C3A and C3S-C2 (A, F) Systems
		Hydration of Portland Cement
			Experimental Procedures
			Mechanism of Cement Hydration: General
				Pre-Induction Period (First Minutes)
				Induction (Dormant) Period (First Few Hours)
				Acceleration Stage (3-12 h after Mixing)
				Post-Acceleration Period
			Mechanisms of Cement Hydration: Kinetics of the Hydration Process
			Mechanisms of Cement Hydration: Composition of the Liquid Phase
			Mechanisms of Cement Hydration: Heat of Hydration
			Mechanisms of Cement Hydration: Experiments and Numerical Simulations
			Mechanisms of Cement Hydration: Modelling and Simulation of Hydration Kinetics
			Mechanisms of Cement Hydration: Molecular Modelling in Cement Science
				Computational Models
					Basic Concepts
						Case Studies
							Case 1
							Case 2
							Case 3
							Case 4
			Hydration of PC in Presence of Calcium Carbonate
		Setting of Portland Cement
			Setting: Definitions and Influencing Factors
			Setting Mechanisms: Physicochemical Factors
			Setting in Cement Pastes: Numerical Simulations
			Detection of Setting in Hydrating Cement Paste
		Hydrated PC Paste
			Constituents of the Paste
			Models of Cement Paste and C-S-H Nanostructure
				Powers and Brownyard (P-B) Model
				Feldman-Sereda (F-S) Model
				The Water-Cement Paste Mass and Length-Change Isotherms
				Mechanical Property Isotherms
					Helium Inflow Methods
					C-S-H (I)-A Nanostructural Model for the Removal of Water From Cement Paste
				Stress Relaxation of C-S-H
				Colloidal-Based Particle Model (P-B) and Layered Silicate Model (F-S)-A Polemic
				Model of Daimon and Coworkers
				Jennings (J) Model
				Taylors Model-A Composition-Based Nanostructural Model
				Richardson and Groves (R-G) Model
			Cement Paste Nanostructure
			Cement Paste Microstructure
			Pore Structure
			Cement Paste Structure in the Vicinity of the Cement Paste-Aggregate Interface
		Strength of Hydrated Cement
			Mechanical Properties of Cement Systems
				Cement Mineral Pastes: Strength Development
				Cement Mineral Pastes: Mechanical Property-Porosity Relationships
				PC Pastes: Mechanical Property-Porosity Relationships
				C-S-H: Mechanical Property-Porosity Relationships
				Methods for Determining Intrinsic Values of Mechanical Properties of Cement and Mineral Pastes and Anhydrous Phases
			Strength of Hydrated Cement: Application of Taylors Approach
				Storage Modulus (E)-Porosity Relationships for C-S-H and Other Layered Silicates
			Effect of Cement Composition on Strength
		PC Hydration at Elevated Temperature
			Hydration at 0-100C
			Hydration Above 100C (High-Pressure Steam Curing)
		References
		Further Reading
6 - Resistance of Concrete to Destructive Agencies
	Resistance of Concrete to Destructive Agencies
		Introduction
		Permeability of Concrete
			Absorption
			Flow of Water Under Pressure
			Gaseous Diffusion
			Ionic Diffusion
			Factors Affecting Permeability
		Physical Attack
			Freezing and Thawing
				Mechanisms of Frost Attack
				Freezing of Aggregates
				Protection Against Freeze-Thaw Damage
				Assessing the Frost Resistance of Concrete
				Cryogenic Applications
			Fire Resistance
				Progressive Deterioration of the Cement Paste
				Deterioration of the Aggregate
				Thermal Incompatibility Between Paste and Aggregate
				Explosive Spalling
				Effect of High Temperature on Strength and Elastic Modulus
				Binders for High-Temperature Applications
			Crystallisation of Salts
			Wear Resistance
			Cracking
		Chemical Attack
			Efflorescence and Leaching
			Sulfate Attack
				`Physical Versus `Chemical Sulfate Attack
				Thaumasite Formation
				Delayed Ettringite Formation
				Requirements for Concrete Subjected to Sulfate Attack
			Effect of Sea Water
			Acid Attack
				Corrosion of Sewer Pipes
					Action of Carbon Dioxide
					Organic Acids
		Corrosion of Metals in Concrete
			Effect of Chloride Ions
				Mitigation of Chloride Corrosion
			Corrosion of Other Metals
			Alkali-Aggregate Reactions
				Alkali-Silica Reaction
				Alkali-Carbonate Reaction
			Electrolysis of Concrete
			Action of Gases
		Concluding Remarks
		Referencesx2
		Further Reading
7 - Physicochemical and Mechanical Properties of Portland Cements
	Physicochemical and Mechanical Properties of Portland Cements
		Introduction
		Heat of Hydration
			Heat of Solution
			Isothermal Conduction Calorimetry
			Adiabatic Calorimetry
			Semi-Adiabatic Calorimetry
			Effect of Proportion and Composition of Main Clinker Minerals
			Effect of Sulfate Content
			Effect of Alkali Content
			Effect of Particle Size Distribution
			Discussion
		Setting Time
			Effect of Proportion of Main Clinker Minerals
			Effect of Sulfate Content
			Effect of Alkali Content
			Effect of Particle Size Distribution
			Discussion
		Strength
			Strength of Concrete
			Strength-Porosity Relationship for Cement Pastes
			Concrete Cube Strengths
			Mortar Prism Strengths
			Influence of Cement Paste-Aggregate Interfaces
			Effect of Proportion of Main Clinker Minerals
			Effect of Initial Temperature Rise
			Effect of Sulfate Content
			Effect of Alkali Content
			Influence of Clinker SO3, and Calcium Sulfate Additions
			Effect of Minor Components
			Effect of Specific Surface Area
			Effect of Particle Size Distribution
			Effect of Clinker Microstructure
			Discussion
		Instantaneous and Time-Dependent Strains Under Load
			Constant Test Conditions
			Stress History
			Work on Cement Paste Specimens
			Humidity at Test
			Temperature at Test
			Mix Parameters and Curing Conditions
			Variable Test Conditions
			Discussion
		Drying Shrinkage
			Cement Composition
			Water/Cement Ratio or Paste Porosity
			Curing Temperature
			Admixtures
			Specimen Geometry
			Aggregate Restraint
			Carbonation
			Discussion
		Durability
			Microstructural Development
			Permeation by Liquid Water
			Permeability to Oxygen Gas
			Oxygen Diffusion
			Drying and Wetting
			Ionic Diffusion
			Cracking
			Permeability of Cement Paste-Aggregate Interfaces
			Freeze-Thaw Attack
			Wear Resistance
			Discussion
		References
8 - The Production of Low Energy Cements
	The Production of Low Energy Cements
		Introduction
		Approaches to Producing Low Energy Cements
		Lowering the Energy Required in the Production of Portland Cement Clinker
		Highly Reactive Portland Cement Clinkers
		Belite Cements (C2S Cements)
			Active Belite Cements
		Blended Cements Made by Diluting Clinker With Other Constituents
		Low Energy Non-Portland Cements
			Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cements
			Alkali Activated Cementitious Materials (AACM)
			Magnesium Oxide-Based Cements
			Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Ash Cements
		Summary Points
		References
		Further Reading
9 - Pozzolanas and Pozzolanic Materials
	Pozzolanas and Pozzolanic Materials
		Introduction
		Types of Pozzolanic Materials
			Natural Pozzolanas
				Materials of Volcanic Origin (Pyroclastic Rocks)
					Incoherent Materials
					Compact Materials (Tuffs)
				Materials of Sedimentary Origin
				Materials of Mixed Origin (Hybrid Rocks)
			Artificial Pozzolanic Materials
				Fly Ash
				Burned Clay and Shale
				Silica Fume
				Other Materials
		Mixtures of Pozzolanic Materials With Lime
			Pozzolanic Reaction
			Thermal Treatment of Natural Pozzolanas
			Reaction Products
			Porosity and Microstructure
			Strength of Mixes of Pozzolanic Materials and Lime
		Cement Containing Pozzolanic Materials
			Cement Types
			Hydration of Clinker Phases With Pozzolanic Materials
				Kinetics of Hydration
					Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
					Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
				Structure and Composition of Hydrates
					C3A
					C3S
			Hydration of Cements Containing Pozzolanic Materials
				Kinetics of Hydration
					Heat of Hydration
					Combined Water
					Degree of Hydration of C3S and Other Clinker Compounds
					Degree of Reaction of Pozzolanic Materials
				Compounds Occurring in Pastes of Cements Containing Pozzolanic Materials
					Ettringite and Monosulfate
					Tetracalcium Aluminate Hydrate
					C-S-H
					C2ASH8
				Pore Solution
				Portlandite
				Mechanisms of Reaction in Cements Containing Pozzolanic Materials
				Paste Microstructure
					Morphology of the Paste
					Porosity of Pastes Containing Pozzolanic Materials
			Mass Transport Through Paste
				Permeability
				Sorption
				Diffusion of Ions
		Fresh and Mechanical Properties of Concrete
			Workability and Bleeding
			Compressive Strength
				Type and Content of Pozzolanic Material
				Particle Size Distribution of Pozzolanic Materials
				PC Characteristics
			Tensile Strength
			Modulus of Elasticity
			Shrinkage and Creep
		Transportation Properties of Concrete
		Durability Properties of Concrete
			Carbonation and Chloride-Induced Corrosion
				Carbonation
				Chloride Ingress
			Chemical Deterioration
				Sulfate Attack
					Na2SO4 Attack
					MgSO4 Attack
					(NH4)2SO4 Attack
					Thaumasite Attack
					Sea Water
				Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
					Influence of Pozzolanic Materials on Alkali-Silica Expansion
					Factors Reducing Expansion
					Permeability
					Alkalinity
					Alkalis in the Solid Hydrates
					Portlandite Content
					Competition Between Pozzolanic and Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
					Mechanisms of Expansion Reduction Through the Use of Pozzolanic Materials
				Acid Attack
			Physical Deterioration
				Freeze/Thaw Action
				Abrasion Resistance
		Concluding Remarks
		References
		Further Reading
10 - Cements Made From Blastfurnace Slag
	Cements Made From Blastfurnace Slag
		Processing of Blastfurnace Slag
		Composition of Blastfurnace Slag
			Chemical Composition of Blastfurnace Slag
			Mineral Composition of Air-Cooled Slags
			Constitution of Glassy Slags
			Requirements
		Slag Activation
			Alkaline Activation: NaOH, KOH, Waterglass
			Lime Activation: Ca(OH)2
				Lime-Slag Hydration
				Lime-Slag Cements
				Applications of Lime-Slag Cements
			Sulfate Activation: Gypsum, Hemihydrate, Anhydrite, Phosphogypsum
			Combined Activation
				Portland Blastfurnace Cement
				Super-Sulfated Cements
			Thermal Activation
		Hydration Modelling of GGBS Cements
		Hydraulic Activity of Slag
		Portland Slag Cement and Blastfurnace Cement
			Physical and Mechanical Properties
			Estimation of Granulated Slag in Cement
			Durability
			Utilisations
		Super-Sulfated Cement
			Physical and Mechanical Properties
				Composition and Properties
			Durability
			Utilisations
		References
		Further Reading
11 - Microsilica as an Addition
	Microsilica as an Addition
		Introduction
		The Material
			Appearance
			Physical Characteristics
			Chemical Characteristics
			Furnace Technology
		Effects on Fresh Concrete
			Mechanism
			Workability
			Stability
		Setting and Hardening of Concrete
			Mechanism
			Heat of Hydration
		Mechanical Properties of Hardened Concrete
			Compressive Strength
			Tensile and Flexural Strength
			Brittleness and Youngs Modulus
			Bonding
			Shrinkage
			Creep
			Fire Resistance
			Abrasion and Erosion
			Summary of Effects on Mechanical Properties
		Durability of Hardened Concrete
			General
			Alkalinity of Microsilica Concrete
			Porosity
			Permeability
			Sulfate Resistance
			Carbonation
			Chloride Resistance
			Electrical Resistance
			Leaching and Lime Bloom
			Frost Resistance
				Air Entrainment
				Frost Resistance Testing
			Alkali Silica Reaction
			Summary of Durability Properties
		Practical Use of Microsilica in Concrete
			Shotcrete
			High-Strength Concrete
			Specifying for Durability
				Storebaelt, Denmark
				Norwegian Bridges
				Concrete in the Middle East
				Tsing Ma Bridge, Hong Kong
				Northumberland Bridge (Nova Scotia-Prince Edward Island, Canada)
				Indianapolis International Airport Parking Garage
		Production of Microsilica
			General
			Characteristics
			Available Forms of Microsilica
		Health and Safety
		Standards and Specifications
		Mix Design Criteria
		Other Mineral Additions and Calcium Aluminate Cements
		Concluding Summary
		References
		Further Reading/Information Sources
12 - Calcium Aluminate Cements
	Calcium Aluminate Cements
		Introduction
		Historical Note
		Production and Mineralogy
			A Wide Range of Compositions-Overview
			Manufacture
				Raw Materials
				Process
			Physical Characteristics of Calcium Aluminate Cements
			Main Phases and Phase Equilibria Related to CACs
				C-A Binary System
				Calcium Aluminate with Silica and Iron Oxide
				Modifications Due to Other Chemical Components, and Their Combinations (TiO, MgO)
			Mineralogy of CACs
			Recent Developments
		Hydration
			Hydration of CAC with Water Alone
			Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) and Fillers
			Blends of CAC, PC and C$
				Description of Ternary Diagram
			Intrinsic Properties Brought by Ettringite Formation
				Rapid Setting and Hardening
				Rapid Drying
				Expansion/Shrinkage Compensation
			Some Formulation Guidelines
				Impact of Calcium Sulfate Types
				Impact of PC
				Impact of CAC Mineralogy
				Control of Expansion
			Impact of Admixtures and Organic Additives (See Also Chapter 14)
			Retarders
			Acceleration
			Water Reducers, Fluidifiers and Superplasticisers
			Air Content Management
			Thickener
			Latex and Polymer Resins-Formulated Products
		Applications
			Building Chemistry
			Flooring
			Adhesive and Grouts
			Technical Mortars
			Priming and Finishing Walls and Facades
			Rapid Repair/Construction
			Abrasion Resistance
			Heat-Resistant and Refractory Concretes
			Heat-Resistant Concretes
			Conventional Dense Refractory Castables
			Insulating Concretes
			Low-Cement Castables
			Refractory Concretes for Reducing Atmospheres
			Pipes and Wastewater
		Strength and Conversion in CAC Concretes
			Influence of Water to Cement Ratio on Conversion
			Influence of Temperature on Kinetics of Conversion
			Influence of Aggregate Mineralogy
			Accelerated Conversion Testing
		Durability
		General Overview of CAC Durability
		General Overview of Blended Systems (CAC + PC + C$) Durability
		Producing Durable Concrete
		Corrosion of Steel
			Pore Solution pH-CAC
			Pore Solution pH-Blended Systems
			Laboratory Exposure to Chlorides-CAC
			Laboratory Exposure to Chlorides-Blended Systems
			Exposure to Sea Water-CAC
		Corrosion of Steel Summary
		Carbonation
			Carbonation-CAC Systems
			Carbonation-Blended Systems
		Biogenic Deterioration
		Sulfate Attack
			Sulfate Attack-CAC
			Sulfate Attack-Blended Systems
		Freeze-Thaw Attack
			Freeze-Thaw Attack-CAC
			Freeze-Thaw Attack-Blended Systems
		De-icing Chemicals
		Alkali-Silica Reaction
			Alkali-Silica Reaction-CAC
			Alkali-Silica Reaction-Blended Systems
		Alkaline Hydrolysis-CAC
		Volume Change
			Shrinkage
			Practical Implications
			Creep
		Thermal Properties
		Conclusions
		References
		Further Reading
13 - Special Cements
	Special Cements
		Introduction
		Oil-Well Cements
			General
			Oil-Well Cement Standards
			Standard Testing Procedures
				Thickening Time
				Compressive Strength
				Free Fluid (Free Water)
				Soundness
				Rheology
				Arctic (Permafrost) Testing Procedures
				Permeability
				Fluid Loss (Filtration) Control
				Particulate Properties
			Operating Conditions
			Non-Standard Oil-Well Cements
			Manufacture of Oil-Well Cements
			Additives Used With Oil-Well Cements
				Retarders
				Accelerators
				Weighting Agents
				Lost Circulation Controllers
				Lightweight Additives: Extenders
				Strength Retrogression Inhibitors
				Fluid Loss Control Additives
				Dispersants (Friction Reducers, Thinners or Turbulence Inducers)
				Defoamers and Deaerators
				Miscellaneous Additives
					Thixotropic Agents
					Salt Slurries for Cementing of Salt Strata
					Gas Migration Controllers
					Foamers
					Colouring Materials
				Engineered Particle Size
			Hydration of Oil-Well Cements
				Ordinary Hydration
				Hydrothermal Hydration
				Low-Temperature Hydration
				Sulfate Resistance
			Effects of Aeration (Exposure)
			General Considerations
		Decorative Portland Cements
			General Points
			Manufacture of White Portland Cement
			White Portland Cement Requirements
			Hydration Chemistry of White Portland Cement
			Coloured Portland Cements
			Cement Paints
		MgO Cements
			MgO
			Production of MgO
				Calcination of Magnesite
				Sea Water and Brine
					Alkaline Precipitation
					Carbonation
				Extraction of MgO from Mg Bearing Minerals
			Chemistry of MgO Cements
				Reactivity
					Citric Acid Test143
					Acetic Acid Test129
				Hydration of Pure MgO
				Hydration of MgO in the Presence of Hydraulically Active Materials
					Formation of Hydrotalcites
					Mg-Al Hydrotalcite
				Carbonation of MgO
				Formation of Mg-Carbonates in MgO-CO2-H2O System
					Overview of Conditions
					Formations at Ambient Temperature and Ambient and Sub-Ambient CO2 Concentration
					Formations at Ambient Temperature and Elevated CO2 Concentration
					Formations at Elevated Temperature and Ambient CO2 Concentration
					Formations at Elevated Temperature and Elevated CO2 Concentration
				Stability of Mg-Carbonates
					Formation of Carbonates in CaO-MgO-CO2-H2O System
					Dolomite and Huntite
					Magnesian Calcites
			Engineering Performance of MgO Cements
				Cements Based on Hydrated MgO
					Pure MgO
					MgO-Portland Cement Blends
					MgO as an Expansive Additive
				Cements Based on Carbonated MgO
				Cements Based on Alkali Activation
				Remediation of Contaminated Soil
			Major Challenges and Way Forward
		Chemical Cements
			Magnesium Oxychloride (Sorel) Cement
			Magnesium Oxysulfate Cement
			Zinc Oxychloride Cement
			Aluminium Oxychloride Cement
			Silicophosphate Cement
			Sodium Hexametaphosphate Cement
			Calcium Phosphate Cements
			Zinc Phosphate Cement
			Magnesium Phosphate Cements
			Magnesia-Ammonium Phosphate Cement
			Magnesia-Tripolyphosphate Cement
			Magnesia-Potassium Phosphate Cement
			Aluminosilicate Cements
			Ionic Polymer Cements
			Organo-Mineral Cements
			Waterless Cements
			Borate Cements
		Special Portland-Type and Other Cements
			Non-Calcareous and Non-Siliceous Portland-Style Cements
			Non-Gypseous Portland Cement
			Alinite Cement
			Belinite Cement
			Belite Cement
			High Early Strength Cements
			Microfine Cements
			Portland Polymer Cements
			Expansive Cements
			Hydrogarnet-Type Cements
			Hydrophobic Portland Cements
			Ferrite Cement
			Thermoplastic Cement
		Appendix
			International Standardisation of Oil-Well Cements
		References
		Further Reading
14 - Cement and Concrete Admixtures
	Cement and Concrete Admixtures
		Introduction
		Air-Entraining Admixtures9
		Water-Reducing/Plasticising Admixtures
			Normal Water-Reducing Admixtures
			Accelerating Water-Reducing Admixtures
			Retarding Water-Reducing Admixtures
		Superplasticising Admixtures
		Polycarboxylate Ethers (PCEs)
		Retarding Admixtures
		Accelerating Admixtures89-95
			Rapid Set Accelerators
			Accelerators for Setting and Hardening
			Calcium Chloride Accelerators
			Non-Chloride Accelerators
		Water-Resisting Admixtures
			Permeability Reducers
				Very Fine Particulate Materials
				Workability and Air-Entraining Admixtures
				Accelerators
			Water-Repellents or Hydrophobers
				Soaps
				Butyl Stearate
				Vegetable Oils
				Selected Petroleum Products
			Miscellaneous
		Speciality Admixtures
			Polymer Dispersions or Latices
			Thickening Agents/Viscosity Modifiers
			Foaming Agents
			Shrinkage Reducing Agents (SRAs)
			Corrosion Inhibitors
				Cathodic Inhibitors
				Anodic Inhibitors
			Wash Water Systems
			Miscellaneous Specialty Admixtures
				Bacterial Spores
				Super Absorbent Polymers
		Conclusion
		References
		Further Reading
15 - Concrete Aggregates
	Concrete Aggregates
		Introduction
		Types and Sources of Natural Aggregates
			Crushed Rock Aggregate in the United Kingdom
				Sedimentary Rocks
				Igneous Rocks
				Metamorphic Rocks
			Natural Sand and Gravel in the United Kingdom
				Conglomerate `Solid\' Sources
				Types of Drift Deposits
				Crushed and Partially Crushed Sands and Gravels
				Blended Aggregates
				Marine Aggregates
			Aggregate Occurrence in Other Areas of the World
				Hot/Dry Climatic Regions
				Hot/Wet Climatic Regions
			Source Variability
				Systematic Variation
				Random Variation
				Weathering and Alteration
				Minor Contamination
			Manufactured and Recycled Aggregates
			Service Record
		Quarrying and Processing
			Extraction Procedures
				General Considerations
				Hard Rock Quarrying
				Working of Sand and Gravel
				Dredging of Marine Aggregates
			Selective Quarrying
			`Super\' Quarries
			Processing of Aggregates
				Design of Processing Plants
				Crushing and Milling
				Significance of Quartz (Free Silica)
				Washing and Scrubbing
				Beneficiation
				Screening and Sorting
			Transportation and Supply
		Classification and Composition
			Petrological and Mineralogical Terms
			Petrographic Composition of Aggregates
				Importance and Usefulness
				Methods of Sampling and Analysis
				Composition
				Weathering and Alteration
				Microstructure and Microtexture
			Petrological Classification of Aggregates
				Purpose of Classification
				Standard Classification Schemes
			Undesirable Constituents
				Clay and Altered Rock Particles
				Absorptive and Microporous Particles
				Coal and Lightweight Particles
				Shell
				Other Weak or Soft Particles and Coatings
				Organic Matter
				Mica
				Chlorides
				Sulfates and Sulfides
				Other Metallic Materials
				Alkali-Reactive Constituents
				Releasable Alkalis
		Properties of Natural Aggregates
			Particle-Size Distribution (Grading)
				Coarse Aggregates
				Fine Aggregates
				All-In Aggregates
				Gap-Graded Aggregates
			Fines (Clay, Silt and Dust) Content
				Tolerable Limits
				Importance of Composition
			Particle Shape and Particle Surface Texture
				Flakiness and Elongation Indices
				Angularity
				Surface Texture (Roughness)
			Particle Density
				Normal Aggregates
				Lightweight Aggregates
				Heavy Aggregates
			Porosity and Absorption
			Bulk Density
			Strength and Toughness
				Compressive Strength of Rock
				Los Angeles Value
				Ten Percent Fines Value
				Aggregate Impact Value and Impact Value
			Hardness and Abrasion Resistance
				Aggregate Abrasion Value
				Micro-Deval Attrition
				Polished Stone Value
			Soundness and Physical Durability
				Freeze-Thaw Soundness and Frost Susceptibility
				Sulfate Soundness
				Drying Shrinkage
				Staining Tests
			Thermal Expansion and Conductivity
				Thermal Expansion
				Thermal Conductivity
		Influence of Aggregate on Concrete Properties
			General Considerations
			Workability of Fresh Concrete
				Grading and Fines Content
				Particle Shape and Surface Texture
				Aggregate Constituents
			Concrete Strength
				Aggregate Strength and Density
				Grading and Fines Content
				Particle Shape and Bond Strength
				Aggregate Constituents
			Concrete Wear Resistance
			Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity
				Alkali-Silica Reaction
				Alkali-Carbonate and Other Reactions
				Aggregate Composition and the `Pessimum\'
				Methods of Testing and Assessment
				Minimising the Risk of ASR
			Concrete Drying Shrinkage and Wetting Expansion
				Composition and Absorption
				Comparative Test for Shrinkage
			Concrete Freeze-Thaw Resistance
				Aggregate Constituents and Composition
				Microporosity and Soundness
				Other Properties
				Effect of De-Icing Chemicals
			Chemical Resistance of Concrete
				Environment and Aggregate Composition
				Sulfate Actions
				Salt Weathering and Soundness
			Concrete Resistance to Thermal Cycling and Fire
		Manufactured Aggregates
			Definitions
				Manufactured Aggregates From By-Products
				Lightweight Aggregates
			Lightweight Aggregates
				Expanded Clay, Shale and Slate
				Ultralightweight Aggregates
				Furnace Bottom Ash
				Sintered Fly Ash
			Normal Weight Manufactured Aggregates
				Natural Wastes From Extractive Industry
				Blastfurnace Slags
				Steel Slags
				Nonferrous Slags
			Heavyweight Aggregates
		Recycled Aggregates
			Definitions
			Recycled Crushed Concrete Aggregate
		References
		Further Reading
16 - Geopolymers and Other Alkali-Activated Materials
	Geopolymers and Other Alkali-Activated Materials
		Alkali Activation: Introduction and Background
		Classification of Alkali-Activated Binders
		Low-Calcium Alkali-Activated Systems
			Alkali Activation of Aluminosilicates
			Binder Structure
			Alternative Activators for Low-Ca Systems
			Fly Ash Chemistry in Alkali-Activated Binders
			Natural Mineral Resources as Precursors
		High-Calcium Alkali-Activated Materials
			Activators for BFS Systems
			Binder Structure in High-calcium AAMs
			Pore Solution Chemistry
			Effects of BFS Characteristics
			Non-Blastfurnace Slag Precursors
		Intermediate Calcium Systems
			Gel Coexistence in Blended Binders
			Activators for Intermediate Ca Systems
				Aluminosilicate + Ca(OH)2 + Alkali Source
				Calcined Clay + BFS + Alkali Source
				Fly Ash + BFS + Alkali Source
			Hybrid PC-Alkali-Aluminosilicate Binders
		Admixtures in Alkali-Activated Binders
		Performance, Durability and Open Questions
		References
		Further Reading
17 - The Influence of the Water-Cement Ratio on the Sustainability of Concrete
	The Influence of the Water/Cement Ratio on the Sustainability of Concrete
		Introduction
		Increasing the Design Strength of Concrete Structures to Decrease Their Carbon Footprint
		The Water/Cement Ratio Law
			The Water/Cement Ratio, an Indirect Measure of the Closeness of Cement Particles in a Cement Paste
			Why Is It Possible to Produce Concretes Having at the Same Time a Very Low Water/Cement and a Very High Slump?
			Why Concrete Strength Continues to Increase When There Is Not Enough Water to Fully Hydrate All Its Cement Particles?
			Water/Cement Ratio and Water/Binder Ratio
			Hydration of Blended Cement
			Hydration of Cements Containing a Filler
			Effect of the Water/Cement Ratio on the Microstructure of the Cement Paste
		Sustainability of Concrete
			Concrete Durability
			Le Chatelier Experiment
			Powers Work on Hydration
				Hydration of a Cement Paste Having a w/c Equal to 0.42
					Hydration in a Closed System
					Hydration of the Same Paste Under Water
					Hydration of a Cement Paste Having a w/c Equal to 0.36 That Hardens Under Water
					Hydration of a Cement Paste Having a w/c Equal to 0.60 in a Closed System
					Hydration in a Closed System of a Cement Paste Having a w/c Equal to 0.30
					Hydration Under Water of a Paste Having a w/c Ratio Equal to 0.30
			Curing Low w/c Concrete
				General Considerations
				Developing an Appropriate Water Curing Strategy in the Field
				Enforcing Such a Curing Strategy
				A Successful Application of This Water Curing Strategy
		Back to the Future
		Conclusion
		References
		Further Reading
18 - Author Index
	Author Index
		A
		B
		C
		D
		E
		F
		G
		H
		I
		J
		K
		L
		M
		N
		O
		P
		Q
		R
		S
		T
		U
		V
		W
		X
		Y
		Z
19 - Subject Index
	Subject Index
		A
		B
		C
		D
		E
		F
		G
		H
		I
		J
		K
		L
		M
		N
		O
		P
		Q
		R
		S
		T
		U
		V
		W
		X
		Y
		Z