Lawrie's Meat Science

Title Page
	Front Matter
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Chapter-1---Introduction_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	Introduction
		Meat and muscle
		Meat from other animals
		Domestication of livestock
			Cattle
			Swine
			Sheep
		Trends and developments
			Meat production
			Animal welfare
			Sustainability
			Kosher and halal
			Cultured meat
			Plant-based meat alternatives
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
Chapter-2---Factors-influencing-the-growth-of-meat-a_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Scie
	Factors influencing the growth of meat animals
		Introduction
		Measurement of growth and body/carcass composition
		Animal influences on growth of farm animals
			Physiological age/stage of maturity
			Genetics
				Breeds
				Crossbreeding
				Within breed differences
				Efficiency of growth
			Gender
			Genetic modification
		Nonanimal influences on growth of farm animals
			Nutrient supply
				Energy feeding systems
				Protein feeding systems
				Other nutrients
			Exogenous agents
				Steroid hormones
				β 2 agonists
				Somatotropin
				Gut-active compounds
					Ruminants
					Monogastrics
			Immunological approaches to increasing growth
			Environmental influences on animal growth
		Interactions between animal and nonanimal influences on growth of farm animals
			Growth in utero
				Fetal developmental programing
				Epigenetics
			Postnatal growth
				Plane of nutrition
				Compensatory growth
				Interaction between prenatal and postnatal growth
		Future developments
		References
Chapter-3---The-structure-and-growth-of-muscle_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	The structure and growth of muscle
		Introduction
		The hierarchy of structures relevant to meat: From macroscopic to molecular
			Carcass level: Meat cuts
				Distribution and percentage of fat and lean muscle in the growing animal
			General anatomy of individual muscles
				Generalized skeletal muscle structure
			The general structure of the striated (skeletal) muscle cell
				Structures within the cell
				Myofibrillar proteins
				Cytoskeletal protein structures
					Exosarcomeric cytoskeletal structures
					Other proteins within muscle fibers: Soluble (sarcoplasmic) proteins
				Muscle fiber types
					Mitochondria
			Structure of the individual intramuscular connective tissues (IMCTs)
				Variations in intramuscular connective tissue (IMCT) content between muscles
				Composition of intramuscular connective tissues
				Collagens in muscle
				Collagen crosslinking
				Turnover and remodeling of intramuscular connective tissue
				Microfilaments and elastin
				Glycoproteins and proteoglycans
				Cell–matrix connectors: Laminin and fibronectin, dystrophin, and the integrins
			The structure of adipose tissues
		Muscle development and growth
			Muscle development in embryogenesis and prenatal growth
			Adipogenesis and fibrillogenesis
			Fetal development
			Postnatal muscle growth
			Muscle cells grow by incorporating satellite cells
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
Chapter-4---Chemical-and-biochemical-constitution-of_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Scie
	Chemical and biochemical constitution of muscle
		General chemical aspects
			Muscle proteins
				Myofibrillar proteins
				Sarcoplasmic proteins
				Connective tissue
			Water
			Carbohydrates
			Intramuscular fat
		Biochemical aspects
			Muscle function in vivo
			Muscle function postmortem
		Factors affecting muscle function with possible consequences on meat quality
			Fiber type, muscle, and anatomical location
			Species, breed, and lines
			Sex
			Age
			Training and exercise
			Animal welfare, stress, and oxidative status
			Diet, plane of nutrition, and fasting
			Interanimal variability
		Conclusion and future trends
		References
Chapter-5---The-conversion-of-muscle-to-meat_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	The conversion of muscle to meat
		Introduction
		Rigor mortis
		Postmortem metabolism
			ATP homeostasis
			The phosphagen system
			Glycogenolysis and glycolysis
			The role of mitochondria
		Factors controlling the rate of postmortem metabolism
		Factors controlling the extent of postmortem metabolism
		Abnormal postmortem metabolism
			Pale, soft, and exudative meat
			Acid meat
			Dark, firm, and dry meat
		Presalughter stress
			Transport and lairage
			Fasting
			Stunning
		Development of meat quality attributes
			Water-holding capacity
			Color
			Texture
		Postmortem handling and meat quality
			Actomyosin toughening and sarcomere shortening
			Muscle temperature
			Electrical stimulation
			Accelerated processing
		Aging and proteolysis
			The calpain system
			The caspase system
			The cathepsin and proteasome systems
		Conclusions
		References
Chapter-6---Meat-microbiology-and-spoilage_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	Meat microbiology and spoilage
		Introduction
		Recent advances in meat microbiology and identification of the main bacterial species involved in spoilage
			Microbiota of various meat products, origin, and shaping
			New evidences, new genomes
		The main microbial contaminants of meat involved in spoilage
			Yeasts and molds
			Bacteria
				Pseudomonas
				Lactic acid bacteria
				Brochothrix thermosphacta
				Clostridium sp.
			Microbial interactions leading to spoilage
		Devices for bacterial spoilage monitoring
		Major spoilage manifestations
		Conclusion
		References
Chapter-7---The-storage-and-preservation-of-meat--I-The_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-S
	The storage and preservation of meat: I—Thermal technologies
		Introduction
		Chilling
			Chilling processes
			Chilling-induced fiber shortening and prevention
			Meat tenderness changes during chill storage
			Oxidative changes in chilled meat
			Superchilling at subfreezing point
			Chill storage in modified atmosphere environments
		Freezing
			Freezing processes
			Effects of freezing on muscular tissue
		Heating
			General consideration
			Pasteurization
			Sterilization
		Novel thermal procedures
			Ohmic heating
			Dielectric heating
			Radiant heating
		Future trends
		References
Chapter-8---The-storage-and-preservation-of-meat--II-No_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-S
	The storage and preservation of meat: II—Nonthermal technologies
		Introduction
		Ionizing radiation
			History of food irradiation
			Irradiation process
			Mode of action
			Antimicrobial aspects
			Chemical and biochemical aspects
				Lipid oxidation
				Off-odor production
				Color changes
				Texture change
			Organoleptic aspects of irradiated meat
			Consumer acceptance of irradiated meat
			Detection
			Future roles for irradiation in the preservation of foods
		High pressure
			History of high-pressure processing of foods
			High-pressure processing
			Antimicrobial mode of action
			Antimicrobial, chemical, and biochemical aspects
				Antimicrobial aspect
				Microbial inactivation as affected by meat product characteristics
			Chemical and biochemical aspects
				Effect of HPP on meat proteins
				Effect of HPP on lipid oxidation of meats
				Effects of HPP on color of meats
			Future prospects of HPP
		Freeze dehydration
			Histological aspects
			Physical and biochemical aspects
			Organoleptic aspects
			Future perspectives of freeze dehydration
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-9---The-storage-and-preservation-of-meat--III-_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Sc
	The storage and preservation of meat. III—Meat processing
		Introduction
		Curing
			Salting
			Chemistry of nitrate and nitrite
			Antimicrobial effect
			Antioxidant effect
			Color development
			Formation of nitrosamines
			Production of meat products without nitrite
		Fermentation
		Dehydration
			Changes during drying
		Smoking
		Processing technologies for cured meat products
			Dry-cured ham
			Fermented sausages
			Cooked ham
			Bacon: Wiltshire cure and modern bacon production
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
Chapter-10---The-storage-and-preservation-of-meat--Stor_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-S
	The storage and preservation of meat: Storage and packaging
		Introduction
		Impact of microbiology on fresh meat quality attributes
		Common technologies used to preserve fresh meat products and assist in a combined manner to extend product shelf lif ...
			Chilling
			Superchilling
			Use of chemical preservatives
			Ionizing radiation
			Other potential and developing technologies for raw meat and muscle-based products
			Packaging technologies employed for raw meat and fresh muscle-based food products
			Vacuum packaging
			Heat-shrink wrapping
			Vacuum skin packaging
			Modified atmosphere packaging
		Packaging materials used for fresh meat and muscle-based products
			Barrier materials, test methods
			Testing methods for gas barrier evaluation of films
			Nanotechnologies in barrier packaging: Nanocoatings and nanofillers
			Antimicrobial packaging
		Smart and intelligent packaging systems
		Conclusions
		References
		Relevant websites
Chapter-11---The-eating-quality-of-meat--I-Color_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	The eating quality of meat: I Color
		Introduction
		Myoglobin concentration
		Myoglobin structure
		Color phenomena in fresh meat
			Myoglobin oxidation and reduction
			Factors endogenous to meat that affect myoglobin redox stability
			Factors exogenous to meat that affect myoglobin redox stability
		Color in cooked nitrite-cured and salted uncooked meats
		Cooked meat color
		Anomalies in meat color
			Color defects in fresh meat
			Color defects in cooked meats
		Measuring meat color
		Summary statement
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-12---The-eating-quality-of-meat--II-Tendern_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Scien
	The eating quality of meat: II—Tenderness
		Introduction
			Definition and measurement
			Effect of muscle type on tenderness
			Preslaughter factors that impact on tenderness
				Genotype effects
				Age effects
				Gender effects
				Handling effects
			Postslaughter factors
				Postmortem glycolysis
				Muscle stretching
				Aging
				Proteolytic mechanisms
				Chemical intervention
		Measuring tenderness
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
Chapter-13---The-eating-quality-of-meat--III-Flavo_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Scienc
	The eating quality of meat: III—Flavor
		Aroma and taste compounds
		Volatile compounds generation reactions
			Lipid degradation (oxidative reactions)
			Maillard reactions and Strecker degradation
			Carbohydrate degradation reactions
			Thiamine degradation
			Degradation of ribonucleotides
		Methodology for meat aroma volatile identification
			Extraction of volatile compounds
			Identification of aroma compounds
			Aroma compounds in meat from different animal species
		Pre- and postslaughter factors affecting aroma
			Breed, sex, aging
			Farming, feeding practices
			Cooking
		Off-flavors
			Warmed over flavor
			Irradiation odors
			Boar taint
			Microbial odors
		Meat product flavor
			Wet-cured meat products
			Dry-cured meat products
			Fermented dry-cured meat products
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
Chapter-14---The-eating-quality-of-meat--IV-Water-holdin_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-
	The eating quality of meat: IV—Water holding capacity and juiciness
		Introduction
		Definition of water-holding capacity and juiciness
		Structural influences on the WHC of uncooked, cooked, and processed meat
		Factors influencing WHC in raw muscle
			pH fall postmortem, PSE, and DFD
			Rigor, cold, and heat shortening
			Electrical stimulation
			Changes in WHC during aging
			Cutting, packaging, and temperature during storage
			Thaw rigor
			Freezing and thawing
		Changes in WHC during cooking of raw meat
			Relationship between cooking temperature and water loss
			Water loss in relation to protein denaturation
			Cook loss changes with aging
			Influence of sarcoplasmic proteins
			Influence of high-pressure processing on WHC
			Influence of sous vide cooking
		Juiciness: Influencing factors and interactions with WHC
		Factors influencing WBC of meat products
			WHC of comminuted meats
			Salt
			Application of salts and bicarbonates pre-rigor
			Ions and ionic strength
			Phosphates
			Marination
			Amino acids and other additives
			High-pressure processing
		Methods to measure WHC and juiciness
			Methods for measuring WHC applying no external force
			Methods for measuring WHC applying external force
			Indirect methods for measuring WHC
			Relationships between methods
			Methods for measuring juiciness
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-15---The-eating-quality-of-meat--V-Sensory-eva_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Sc
	The eating quality of meat: V Sensory evaluation of meat
		Introduction
		Why sensory evaluation of meat is unique
		Overview of how sensory is perceived and defining sensory attributes
		Sensory controls for meat
			Product controls
			Environmental controls
			Panelist controls
		Sensory techniques
			Discriminative analysis
			Descriptive analysis
				Flavor and texture profile methods
				Meat descriptive attribute sensory evaluation
				Spectrum descriptive attribute analysis
				Quantitative descriptive attribute analysis
			Consumer analysis
				Central location tests (CLT)
				Home use tests (HUT)
				Ballot development and use of scales
		Emerging or underutilized sensory techniques
		Conclusions
		References
Chapter-16---Meat-safety-I-Foodborne-pathogens-and-othe_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-S
	Meat safety—I Foodborne pathogens and other biological issues
		Introduction
		Biological meatborne hazards: Prevalence, transmission, and foodborne disease surveillance
		Meatborne bacterial pathogens and toxins
			Campylobacter spp.
			Clostridium spp.
			Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli
			Listeria monocytogenes
			Salmonella enterica
			Yersinia enterocolitica
			Other bacterial pathogens
		Meatborne viruses
			Hepatitis viruses
			Noroviruses
			Other viruses
		Meatborne parasites
			Taenia spp.
			Toxoplasma gondii
			Trichinella spp.
			Other parasites
		Other biological issues
			Prions
			Biogenic amines
		Current and future challenges to biological meat safety
		Concluding remarks and outlook
		References
Chapter-17---Meat-safety--II-Residues-and-contamina_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Scien
	Meat safety: II Residues and contaminants
		Introduction
		Chemical contaminants and residues
			Veterinary drug residues
				Antibacterials
					Aminoglycosides
					Amphenicols
					β -Lactams
					Macrolides and lincosamides
					Nitrofurans
					Quinolones
					Sulfonamides
					Tetracyclines
					Other antibacterials
				Anthelmintics
				β -Agonists
				Coccidiostats
				Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
				Hormones
					Anabolic steroids
					Corticosteroids
					Thyreostats
				Tranquilizers
			Persistent organic pollutants
				Pesticides
				Dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
				Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other environmental contaminants
			Heavy metals
			Mycotoxins
		Risk assessment
		Analytical methods
			Sample preparation techniques
				Extraction techniques
				Sample clean-up techniques
			Instrumental analysis
		Future trends and perspectives
		References
Chapter-18---Meat-authenticity-and-traceability_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	Meat authenticity and traceability
		General overview
		Intrinsic characteristics of the meat
			Identification of the species of origin
				Analysis of proteins and peptides
				Analysis of DNA: Techniques and approaches
					PCR-based analyses coupled with simple post-PCR methods
					PCR and next-generation sequencing
					PCR and chip analysis
					Real-time PCR
					Digital PCR
					Non-PCR systems
				Analysis of fat, metabolite, and other chemical or physicochemical components or characteristics
			Identification of the subspecies or breed of origin
			Individual identification of the animals: Meat traceability
			Identification of the sex of the animals
			Identification of genetically modified animals
		Extrinsic characteristics of the meat
			Geographic origin, feeding regimes, and production systems
			Treatments and processing procedures
				Irradiated meat
				Frozen/thawed meat
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
Chapter-19---Meat-composition-and-nutritional-valu_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Scienc
	Meat composition and nutritional value
		Introduction
		Global meat production and consumption
		Composition of meat. Roles of nutrients in metabolism and recommended intakes
			Macronutrients
				Protein
				Fat
				Fatty acids
			Vitamins
			Minerals
			Bioactive compounds
		Meat as part of a healthy diet
		Effects of cooking on nutrients in meat
		Conclusions
		References
Chapter-20---Meat-and-health_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	Meat and health
		Introduction: Nutrients supplied from meat
			Macronutrients supplied from meat
			Micronutrients supplied from meat
		Meat in healthy nutrition and diet
			Meat and cardiovascular disease
			Meat and cancer
				Meat and colorectal cancer
				Meat and breast cancer
		Recommended meat intakes
		Functional muscle foods
		Problematics with toxins and residues
		Conclusions
		References
Chapter-21---Sustainability-I--Edible-by-products_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	Sustainability I: Edible by-products
		Introduction
		Main co-products
		Nutritional value of co-products
		Products resulting from co-products
			Meat extract
			Trimmings
			Soup stock
			Gelatin
			Haggis
			Mechanically separated meat
		Added value products obtained from co-products
		Conclusions and future trends
		References
Chapter-22---Sustainability-II--Sustainable-animal-produ_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-
	Sustainability II: Sustainable animal production and meat processing
		Introduction
		Types of animal production systems around the world
			Extensive or rangeland animal production systems
			Intensive animal production systems
			Semiintensive animal production systems
			Advantages and disadvantages of different animal production systems
		What is sustainable animal production?
		Why it is necessary to maintain sustainable animal production?
		Some practices of sustainable animal production systems
			Use of fresh and conserved grass pastures
			Use of agri-food and industrial by-products
			Utilization of low-nutritive high-fibrous roughages
			Fodder and tree legumes for integrated mixed farming
			Matching welfare and nutrition to genetic potential
			Perennialized grazing cereals and multipurpose crops
		Other technologies or strategies to improve sustainability of animal production
			Strategies to minimize diet-related subclinical diseases
				Bloat
				Acidosis
				Ammonia toxicity
				Antinutritional factors
				Mycotoxins
				Ketosis
			Strategies to mitigate methane gas emission
				Use of lipid supplements
				Use of polyphenols
				Use of cereal grains
				Use of ionophores
			Sources of secondary metabolites and bioactive compounds for better animal health
				Secondary metabolites
				Polyunsaturated fatty acids
				Antioxidants
		Meat processing
			Transport and lairage management
			Slaughter
			Carcass processing
				Hot boning
				Cold boning
			Automated and on-site meat processing
			Waste management
			The preservation of processed meat
				Immediate consumption or retail display
				Wet aging to preserve meat
				Dry aging to preserve meat
				Frozen storage to preserve meat
		Benefits of sustainable animal production and meat processing
			Economic benefits
			Social benefits
			Environmental benefits
			Welfare benefits
		Future opportunities and perspectives
			Potential of legumes as ruminant feeds
			Potential of lipids as ruminant feed supplement
			Potential of antioxidants in livestock feeds
			Potential of feeds containing secondary metabolites and bioactive compounds
			Potential of matching nutrition to genetics
			Potential for animal transport and slaughter
			Potential of packaging technology for better meat processing and preservation
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgment
		References
Chapter-23---Future-meat-market_2023_Lawrie-s-Meat-Science
	Future meat market
		Introduction
		Trends in plant-protein-based meat analogs
			Plant protein structure and functionality
			Processing of plant-protein-based meat analogs
			Challenges and opportunities
				Sensory aspects
				Nutrition, health and safety aspects
				Market and consumption prospects
		Trends in insect proteins to be used in meat products
			Nutritional aspects and risks of insect consumption
				Nutritional aspects
				Risks of consumption
			Consumer acceptance and future research
		Cell-cultured meat and future market opportunities
			Benefits and current developments
				Benefits of cultured meat
				Current developments for producing cultured meat
			Attitudes and acceptance of cell-cultured meat
		Trends in organic meat products
			Production system for organic meat and meat products
				Organic livestock production practice
				Organic livestock product processing practices
				Organic livestock verification and certification
			Quality difference between organic and conventional meat products
			Future prospects for organic meat products
			Anticipated markets
		Pandemic planning for the meat industry
		Conclusion and remarks
		References
Index
	Index
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		I
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		N
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		Q
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