Law charitable status

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Table of Cases......Page 13
Table of Statutes......Page 20
Basic propositions......Page 25
Summary of the book......Page 27
The importance of the charity sector in the delivery of public services......Page 28
Donors......Page 30
Law reform......Page 31
The Commission’s powers of removal......Page 32
General approach to writing the book......Page 34
Introduction......Page 36
A legal obligation to carry out the charitable purposes......Page 38
Certainty of words......Page 42
Certainty of objects......Page 43
Express clauses in a governing instrument which prevent charitable status......Page 44
The charitable objects are too widely drafted......Page 46
Charitable purposes......Page 47
What are charitable purposes?......Page 48
The Commission’s dilemma......Page 50
Objects or activities?......Page 51
The objects are ambiguous......Page 52
There is a doubt about whether the objects are charitable......Page 53
The objects do not pass the public benefit test......Page 54
Objects or activities: Conclusion......Page 55
Fine distinctions......Page 56
Why is public benefit important to the question of removal now?......Page 58
Little analysis by the court......Page 59
Public benefit differs from one head of charity to another......Page 60
Harm or benefit?......Page 61
Emphasis on form over substance......Page 62
The concept of public benefit changes with time......Page 65
Viability......Page 66
Conclusion......Page 67
‘No longer considers is a charity’......Page 69
‘Does not operate’......Page 74
‘No longer considers is a charity’......Page 76
Never had the essential indicia of charitable status......Page 77
Sham charities......Page 78
Change in the law......Page 81
Mistaken understanding of the law......Page 83
Distinguishing decisions of the court......Page 84
Making law......Page 89
Cy-pres application of property where the institution was never a charity......Page 91
Rectification......Page 93
Cy-pres where the institution was a charity but is no longer charitable......Page 95
‘Any change in its trusts’......Page 97
‘Ceased to exist’......Page 99
Trusts without permanent endowment......Page 100
Trusts with permanent endowment......Page 101
Companies limited by guarantee......Page 104
The survival of charity following dissolution......Page 105
Bona vacantia property applied cy-pres by the Crown......Page 106
‘Does not operate’......Page 107
Conclusion......Page 108
Charities connected to the state......Page 109
Possible grounds for removal......Page 110
Critical analysis of the possible grounds for removal......Page 111
Why charitable schools which charge fees are controversial......Page 113
Possible grounds for removal......Page 114
Critical analysis of the possible grounds for removal......Page 115
How the critical analysis supports the basic propositions......Page 117
Failure to demonstrate public benefit......Page 118
Not promoting a religion for the purposes of charity law......Page 119
Failure to demonstrate public benefit......Page 121
Not promoting a ‘Religion’ for the purpose of charity law......Page 123
Conclusion......Page 126
The position of the Commission......Page 127
What is ‘charity’?......Page 128
The institution was never a charity......Page 129
The institution was a charity but has ceased to have charitable purposes......Page 132
What happens to the property of a charity which is removed from the register?......Page 136
Conclusion......Page 137
Powers of investigation and protection......Page 138
Sections 18(1) and 19 protective powers......Page 139
Appointment of additional trustees......Page 140
Appointment of an interim manager......Page 141
Making schemes......Page 142
Removal of trustees......Page 143
New powers under the Charities Act 2006......Page 144
Does not operate......Page 145
Change in trusts......Page 147
Conclusion......Page 148
Introduction......Page 150
The Human Rights Act 1998......Page 152
Public authorities......Page 153
Does the Human Rights Act 1998 apply to the removal of charities from the register?......Page 154
General principles......Page 156
Prescribed by law......Page 157
General and particular Convention rights and the Commission’s power to remove charities from the register......Page 160
The peaceful enjoyment of property......Page 161
The public or general interest......Page 162
Subject to the conditions provided by law......Page 163
Article 14: Freedom from discrimination......Page 164
Different treatment......Page 165
Comparable situation......Page 167
Proportionality......Page 168
Article 9: Freedom of thought, conscience and religion......Page 169
Religion or belief......Page 170
Limits on Article 9......Page 173
For the protection of health and morals......Page 175
Article 2, Protocol 1: Right to education......Page 176
Article 2, Protocol 1 and Article 14 together......Page 179
Respect for the religious and philosophical convictions of parents......Page 180
Article 10: Freedom of expression......Page 181
Think tanks......Page 184
Prescribed by law......Page 186
Legitimate aims......Page 187
Maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary......Page 188
Article 10 and Article 14 together......Page 189
Reinterpretation of the rule against political objects......Page 190
The Charities Act 2006......Page 191
Conclusion......Page 193
Introduction......Page 195
Appealing against direct removal under section 3(4) Charities Act 1993......Page 198
Appealing against indirect removal......Page 199
Direct and indirect removal, judicial review and common-law action......Page 201
Direct removal, judicial review and common-law action......Page 203
Legitimate expectation......Page 204
Negligent mis-statement......Page 207
Ultra vires, Wednesbury unreasonableness and bias......Page 208
The right to be heard and the Human Rights Act 1998:  Article 6: Right to a fair trial......Page 209
Natural justice......Page 210
Conclusion......Page 211
Costs......Page 212
The Commission’s internal review procedure......Page 215
The Ombudsman......Page 216
Conclusion......Page 217
The Commission’s powers of removal are limited......Page 218
No powers of removal......Page 219
Greater powers of removal......Page 220
Powers to protect the property of removed institutions......Page 221
The Commission’s powers of removal should be further restricted by widening the qualification for registration as a charity......Page 222
There is a distinction between a governing instrument of a charity and its property......Page 223
Access to justice......Page 224
Overall conclusion......Page 226
Bibliography......Page 227
Articles......Page 228
Government Publications......Page 229
Estoppel......Page 206
Charity Commission Publications......Page 230
Index......Page 232