Language, Usage and Cognition

Cover......Page 1
Abstract......Page 3
Title Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Figures......Page 8
Tables......Page 9
Acknowledgements......Page 11
1.1 The nature of language......Page 13
1.2.1 Units: morphemes......Page 14
1.2.2 Language-specific categories that are heterogeneous and gradient: the English auxiliary......Page 16
1.2.3 Specific instances of construction vary: I don’t know, I don’t inhale......Page 17
1.3 Domain-general processes......Page 18
1.4 Usage-based grammar......Page 20
1.5 Sources of evidence......Page 22
1.6 Precursors......Page 23
1.7 Questions that are asked in this framework......Page 24
2.2.1 The structuralist tradition......Page 26
2.2.2 A role for imitation......Page 28
2.2.3 Early experimental results......Page 29
2.3 Exemplar models in phonology......Page 31
2.3.1 The Reducing Effect of frequency......Page 32
2.3.3 Change in adult phonology......Page 33
2.4.1 Networks of associations......Page 34
2.4.2 The Conserving Effect of token frequency......Page 36
2.5.2 Constructions......Page 37
2.5.3 Evidence for an exemplar representation for constructions......Page 40
2.6 Conclusion......Page 43
3.1 Introduction......Page 45
3.2 Chunking......Page 46
3.3.1 Reduction of words in context......Page 49
3.3.2 Causes of reduction......Page 50
3.3.3 Differential reduction within high-frequency chunks......Page 55
3.3.4 Autonomy: the structure and meaning of chunks......Page 56
3.4.1 Changes in morphosyntactic analysability and semantic compositionality......Page 58
3.4.2 Increasing autonomy......Page 60
3.4.3 Grammaticalization......Page 62
3.4.4 Autonomy and exemplar cum network model......Page 64
3.5 Meaning and inference......Page 65
3.6 Conclusion......Page 68
4.1 Analogy and similarity in the processing of novel utterances......Page 69
4.2 Analogy as a domain-general process......Page 70
4.3 Similarity to prior utterances......Page 71
4.4 Analogy in child language......Page 76
4.5 Analogy in language change......Page 78
4.6.1 Diachronic analogy in morphosyntax......Page 81
4.6.2 Analogy as the source of new constructions......Page 83
4.7 Analogy vs. rules......Page 85
4.9 Conclusion......Page 87
5.2 Why constructions?......Page 88
5.3 Categorization: exemplar categories......Page 90
5.4 Dimensions upon which constructions vary: degree of fixedness vs. schematicity in the slots of constructions......Page 92
5.5 Prefabs as the centres of categories......Page 93
5.6.1 Failures of necessary and sufficient conditions......Page 95
5.6.2 More local categorization......Page 97
5.6.3 Similarity in categorization......Page 98
5.6.4 Multiple clusters in constructional categories......Page 99
5.7 The role of the most frequent member of the category......Page 100
5.8 Family resemblance structure......Page 102
5.9 Categories which are more schematic......Page 103
5.10 Productivity......Page 106
5.11 Centrality of membership is not autonomy......Page 108
5.12 Problems with Collostructional Analysis......Page 109
5.13 Greater degrees of abstraction......Page 113
5.14 Conclusion......Page 115
6.1 Diachrony as part of linguistic theory......Page 117
6.2 Grammaticalization......Page 118
6.3 How grammaticalization occurs......Page 119
6.4 The explanatory power of grammaticalization......Page 122
6.5 Criticisms of grammaticalization: unidirectionality and grammaticalization theory......Page 124
6.6 The source of change: language acquisition or language use?......Page 126
6.7 Conclusions......Page 131
7.1 Approaches to reanalysis......Page 132
7.2 Auxiliaries in English......Page 133
7.3 Grammaticalization of the modals and other auxiliaries......Page 134
7.4 A new negative construction......Page 135
7.5 An old construction for questions......Page 136
7.6 A second pattern emerges......Page 137
7.7 Two patterns for negatives with not......Page 139
7.9 Periphrastic do......Page 141
7.10 Two hypotheses......Page 142
7.11 Lexical diffusion......Page 144
7.12 Conclusions: constructions and adult-based change......Page 145
8.2 Chunking and constituency......Page 148
8.3 Categorization and constituency......Page 150
8.4 Constituent structure of complex prepositions......Page 151
8.5 Semantic change: in spite of......Page 155
8.6 Decategorialization as a result of the loss of analysability......Page 156
8.7 Reanalysis as gradual......Page 158
8.8 The Spanish Progressive: advanced grammaticalization in prefabs......Page 159
8.9 Conclusions......Page 162
9.1 Introduction......Page 163
9.2 General vs. local patterns: negation......Page 164
9.3.1 Can’t seem......Page 165
9.3.2 Can’t think, can’t believe, can’t say: skewed distribution in constructions......Page 166
9.4 A more equal distribution: can and can’t afford......Page 169
9.5 Affirmatives more frequent than negatives......Page 170
9.7 Can and can’t remember......Page 171
9.8 Why does English distinguish remember and can remember?......Page 175
9.9 Conclusions......Page 176
10.1 Introduction......Page 177
10.2 Grammatical meaning comes from lexical meaning......Page 178
10.3.1 Overview......Page 179
10.3.2 Can in Middle English......Page 180
10.4 Pragmatic strengthening......Page 183
10.4.1 Futures......Page 184
10.4.2 In spite of......Page 185
10.5 Retention of lexical meaning......Page 186
10.6 Absorption of meaning from context......Page 188
10.7 Zero morphemes......Page 189
10.8 Nature of semantic categories for grammatical forms......Page 193
10.9 Invariant, abstract meaning?......Page 195
10.10 The importance of oppositions......Page 199
10.11 Meanings evolve to reflect experience......Page 201
10.12 Conclusions......Page 205
11.1 Typology and universals......Page 206
11.2 Cross-linguistic similarities in a theory of language......Page 207
11.3 Synchronic observations, diachronic paths and domain-general processes......Page 209
11.4 Grammaticalization paths as ‘strange attractors’......Page 210
11.5 Origins of language from domain-general abilities......Page 213
11.6.1 Similarities in pragmatic inferencing......Page 216
11.6.2 Inferencing and morphological typology......Page 218
11.7 Deictic morphology and cultural type......Page 222
11.8 Grammaticality, frequency and universals......Page 226
11.8.2 What constructions speakers choose to use......Page 227
11.8.4 Processing ease/difficulty......Page 230
11.9 Conclusion: explanation for linguistic structures......Page 231
Notes......Page 234
Bibliography......Page 238
Index......Page 258