Lake Hydrology: An Introduction to Lake Mass Balance

Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. Introduction
	1.1. Limnology
	1.2. Dimensions, Units, Measurements, and Mathematical Conventions
	1.3. Dimensional Analysis
	1.4. Spatial Coordinates
	1.5. Mathematics and Statistics
2. Water and the Hydrologic Cycle
	2.1. Water and Its Properties
	2.2. The Hydrologic Cycle
	2.3. Mass Balance of Water
3. Drainage Basins, Lentic Systems, Lake Morphometry, and Lake Volume
	3.1. Drainage Basins
		3.1.1. Introduction
		3.1.2. The Physical Template of Watershed Structure and Composition
	3.2. Lentic Systems
		3.2.1. Origin and Classification of Lake Systems
		3.2.1a. Major Lake Types
	3.3. Solar Radiation
		3.3.1. Light Attenuation and Lake Depth
		3.3.1a. Biological Communities
		3.3.1b. Nutrient Concentration and Trophic Classification
		3.3.2. Thermal Stratification of Lakes
		3.3.2a. Thermal Radiation in Lake Water
		3.3.2b. Thermal Classification
	3.4. Lake Morphometry
		3.4.1. Introduction
		3.4.2. Morphometric Parameters
	3.5. Lake Volume or Storage
		3.5.1. Conic Method
		3.5.2. Engineering Method
		3.5.3. Mean Depth
		3.5.4. Absolute Hypsographic Curves
	Case Study 3.1. City of Winters, Texas, Elm Creek Dam and Reservoir
	3.6. Summary
4. Evapotranspiration
	4.1. Introduction
	4.2. Evaporation
	4.3. Transpiration
		4.3.1. Xylem Transport
	4.4. Molecular Movement of Water
		4.4.1. Diffusion
		4.4.2. Osmosis
	4.5. Estimates of Evapotranspiration
		4.5.1. Water Budget Method
		Case Study 4.1. Lake Jackson Seepage Model
		4.5.2. Direct Empirical Observations Using Pan Measurements
		4.5.3. Mass Transfer Method
		4.5.4. Energy Balance Method with the Effects of Transpiration and Mass Transfer
	4.6. Summary
5. Rainfall and Surface Flow to Lakes
	5.1. Introduction
	5.2. Precipitation
		5.2.1. Mechanisms for Rainfall
	5.3. Measuring Precipitation
		5.3.1. Rainfall Gauges
		5.3.2. Spatial Interpolation: Methods of Estimating Areal or Spatial Patterns of Rainfall with Deterministic and Computer-Generated Models
		5.3.2a. Arithmetic Mean
		5.3.2b. Isohyetal Maps
		Case Study 5.1. Hastings, Nebraska, Isohyetal Map
		5.3.2c. Thiessen Polygon Weighted Average
		Case Study 5.2. Hastings, Nebraska, Thiessen Polygons
		5.3.2d. Inverse Distance Weighting
		5.3.2e. Computer-Generated Rainfall Interpolations
		Case Study 5.3. Stanley River Catchment, Queensland, Australia
		5.3.2f. Summary
		5.3.3. Remote Sensing Measurement of Rainfall
		5.3.3a. Radar
		5.3.3b. Satellite
		5.3.3c. Incorporation of Multisensor Rainfall Estimation
		5.3.4. Summary
	5.4. Presentation of Rainfall Data
		5.4.1. Rain Intensity
		5.4.2. Temporal Patterns of Storms
		5.4.3. Hyetographs
6. Stormwater Flow
	6.1. Introduction
	6.2. Variable Source Areas
	6.3. Storm Runoff and Baseflow
	6.4. Separation of Baseflow and Quickflow
		Case Study 6.1. Little Bighorn River Groundwater Recharge
		6.4.1. Graphical Separation of Baseflow Using Hydrographs
		Case Study 6.2. Indirect Groundwater Discharge to the Great Lakes Using Hydrograph Separation
	6.5. Losses
		6.5.1. Basic Processes of Infiltration
		6.5.1a. Capillary Potential (Suction) and Adsorption
		6.5.1b. Vertical Movement of Water in an Unsaturated Porous Medium
		6.5.2. Infiltration Rate and Cumulative Infiltration
		6.5.3. Hydrologic Soil Group
		6.5.4. Approximate and Empirical Infiltration Models
		6.5.4a. Green-Ampt Method
		6.5.4b. Horton’s Model
	6.6. Urban Runoff and Consumptive Use
		6.6.1. Urban Runoff
		6.6.2. Consumptive Use
		Case Study 6.3. Impacts of Water Development on Great Salt Lake and the Wasatch Front
		6.6.3. Implications
	6.7. Summary
7. Methods for Estimating Storm Runoff
	7.1. Introduction
	7.2. Characterizing Rainfall Events
		7.2.1. Annual Exceedance Probability and Average Recurrence Interval
		7.2.2. Design Storms
		7.2.3. Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
	7.3. Runoff Models for Small- to Medium-Sized Catchments
		7.3.1. Rational Method
		7.3.1a. Flow / Peak Discharge Q Calculation
		7.3.1b. Runoff Coefficient
		Case Study 7.1. Stormwater Runoff Assessment Using Rational Method
		7.3.2. Time-Area Method Rainfall Intensity i
		7.3.2a. Morgali and Linsley Method
		7.3.2b. Kirpich Method
		7.3.3. Soil Conservation Service Method
		7.3.3a. Retention Parameters
		7.3.3b. Hydrologic Soil Groups
		7.3.3c. Hydrologic Soil-Cover Complex
		Case Study 7.2. Stormwater Runoff Assessment Using Soil Conservation Service Method
	7.4. Hydrographs
		7.4.1. Natural Hydrographs
		7.4.2. Unit Hydrograph
		7.4.2a. Limitations of the Unit Hydrograph
		7.4.2b. Unit Hydrograph Applications
		7.4.2c. Unit Hydrograph Construction and Application for Simple Storms
		7.4.3. Synthetic Unit Hydrograph
		7.4.3a. Dimensionless Hydrograph
		7.4.3b. Triangular Unit Hydrograph
		7.4.4. Influences Affecting Unit Hydrograph Shape
	7.5. Runoff Hydrograph Estimation Models
		7.5.1. Runoff-Routing Approaches
		7.5.2. Flow Routing Models
		7.5.2a. Lumped Hydrologic Models
		7.5.2b. Semidistributed Hydrologic Models
		7.5.2c. Semidistributed (Node-Link Type) Models
		7.5.2d. Distributed Hydraulic Models
	7.6. Summary
8. Streamflow to Lakes
	8.1. Introduction
		8.1.1. Lotic System Framework
		8.1.2. Stream Networks
		8.1.3. Flow to Lakes
	8.2. Velocity Distribution and Uniform Flow within Stream Channels
		8.2.1. Laminar and Turbulent Flow
	8.3. Calculating Channel Flow
	8.4. Streamflow Hydrographs and Field Measurements for Determining Streamflow
		8.4.1. Current Meter
		8.4.2. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
		8.4.3. Determining Discharge across Stream Cross Section
9. Groundwater Flow
	9.1. Introduction
	9.2. Groundwater Systems
		9.2.1. Aquifers, Aquitards, and Aquicludes
		9.2.2. Elasticity, Transmissivity, and Storativity of Aquifers
		9.2.3. Well Hydraulics, Specific Yield, and Aquifer Storativity
	9.3. Groundwater Hydraulics
		9.3.1. Fluid Pressure and Static Conditions
	9.4. Fluids in Motion: Laminar and Turbulent Flow
	9.5. Molecular Attraction, Fluid Viscosity, Friction, Head Loss, and Laminar Flow
	9.6. Darcy’s Law
		9.6.1. Hydraulic Conductivity: Darcy’s Proportionality Constant K
	9.7. Hydraulic Head and Hubbert’s Ctlassic Treatise on Fluid Potential
	9.8. Head Loss
	9.9. Hydraulic Properties of a Porous Medium
		9.9.1. Heterogeneity, Anisotropy, and Hydraulic Conductivity
	9.10. Continuum Concept and Representative Elementary Volume
		9.10.1. Flow in a Fractured Medium
	9.11. Hydraulic Gradients, Boundaray-Value Problem, and Direction of Flow
	9.12. Field Mapping Equipotential Lines and Flow Nets
		9.12.1. Potentiometric Mapping for Confined Aquifer Systems
		9.12.2. Flow through an Unconfined Aquifer
		9.12.3. Flow Maps Typical to Lake Systems Bounded by Unconfined Aquifer Systems
	9.13. Summary
10. Lake Seepage
	10.1. Introduction
	10.2. General Lake-Groundwater Interactions
	10.3. Determining Seepage
		10.3.1. Falling-Head Permeameter Hydraulic Conductivity
		10.3.2. Seepage Meters
	10.4. Seepage and Average Linear Velocity
	10.5. Construction and Placement of Seepage Meters
	Case Study 10.1. Methods for Measuring Seepage and Hydraulic Conductivity at Lake Jackson, Leon County, Florida
	10.6. Lake Bottom and Hydraulic Conductivity Heterogeneities
	Case Study 10.2. Hypsometric Effects and Lake Bottom Hydraulic Conductivity Modeling of Lake Jackson, Leon County, Florida
	10.7. Ecological Indicators of Lake Seepage
	10.8. Summary
11. An Overview of Hydrologic Modeling of Lakes, Lake Mass Balance, and Hypsometry
	11.1. Systems
	11.2. Model Process
	11.3. Model Types
		11.3.1. Deterministic Analytical Model
		Case Study 11.1. Lake Mass Balance and Hypsometry
		11.3.1a. Numerical Simulation Computer Models
		11.3.1b. Numerical Modeling
		Case Study 11.2. Numerical Simulation Analyses of Lake-Groundwater Interaction
		11.3.2. Stochastic Models and Surface Water Applications
		Case Study 11.3: Polynomial Regression Seepage Model of Lake Jackson, Leon County, Florida
		11.3.2a. Geostatistical Methods
		11.3.2b. Summary
		11.3.3. Mixed Models
		Case Study 11.4. Seepage Modeling of Lake Jackson, Leon County, Florida
	11.4. Development of a Model
		11.4.1. Introduction
		11.4.2. Awareness of a Problem
		11.4.3. Watershed Modeling
	11.5. Model Selection, Validation, Calibration, and Documentation
		11.5.1. Introduction
		11.5.2. Phase I: Early Assessment/Scoping
		11.5.2a. Spatial Considerations
		11.5.2b. Time Considerations
		11.5.3. Phase II: Model Selection
		11.5.3a. Overview of Hypothetical Model Strategy
		11.5.4. Phase III: Calibration and Validation
		11.5.5. Phase IV: Documentation
	11.6. Summary
Appendix
References
Subject Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	XY
	Z