Islam in Historical Perspective

Cover
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Note on Transliteration and Dates
Introduction
	What Is Islam?
	Multiplicity of Approaches to the Study of Islam
	Islam as an Object of Interpretation and a Source of Meaning
	Notes
1 Arabia: The Cradle of Islam
	Geography
	The Arabs
	Bedouin Lifestyle
	Social Structures
	Raiding and Warfare
	Mecca: A Trade Hub
	Mecca: A Religious Center
	Other Religious Communities of Arabia
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
2 Muhammad and the Beginnings of Islam: The Making of the Muslim Community
	Muhammad’s Background and Early Life
	The First Revelations
	Muhammad’s Public Preaching and Opposition to It
	Migration (Híjra) and the Formation of the Islamic Umma
	Muhammad as Political and Religious Leader and Private Individual
	The Battle of Úhud
	The Battle of the Ditch
	Muhammad and the Bedouin Tribes of Arabia
	The Conquest of Mecca and Beyond
	Conclusions
	Question to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
3 After Muhammad: The Rightly Guided Caliphs and the Conquests
	The Muslim Conquests Under ‘Umar
	The Conquest of Syria and Palestine
	The Conquest of Iraq
	The Conquest of Egypt
	The Conquests Continue: The Fall of the Sasanid Empire
	The Death of ‘Umar and the Succession of ‘Uthman
	Conclusions
	Question to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
4 The Murder of ‘Uthman, the Fitna Wars, and the Rise and Consolidation of the Umayyad Dynasty
	Who’s “Right” and Who’s “Wrong”?
	The Election of ‘Uthman
	Grievances Against ‘Uthman
	The Accession of ‘Ali and the Battle of the Camel
	The Struggle Between ‘Ali and Mu‘awiya
	The Battle of Siffín
	The Kharijites
	The Last Years of ‘Ali’s Caliphate
	Mu‘awiya Becomes Caliph
	The Death of Mu‘awiya, the Accession of Yazíd, and the Tragedy at Karbala’
	The Caliphate of ‘Abdallah b. al-Zubayr
	The Rebellion of Mukhtár
	The End of ‘Abdallah b. al-Zubayr’s Caliphate and the Triumph of the Marwánids
	The Consolidation of Umayyad Power Under ‘Abd al-Malik and His Successors
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
5 The Principal Source of Islam: The Qur’an
	The Qur’an as Revelation and Sacred Book
	The Name and Structure
	The Language of the Qur’an
	The Mysterious Letters
	The Collection of the Qur’an
	The Central Theme of the Qur’an: God
	The Prophets and Messengers
	The Judgment Day, Paradise, and Hell
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
6 The Prophetic Hadíth and Sunna and the Emergence of the Shari‘a
	Hadíth as the Muslim Gospel?
	The Importance of Hadíth
	The Types of Hadíth
	The Transmission and Collection of Hadíth
	The Writing Down of Hadíth and the Elevation of the Status of the Prophet’s Sunna
	The Six Sunni Hadíth Collections
	The Shi‘ite Hadíth
	Sacred or Holy Hadíth (Hadíth Qúdsi)
	The Emergence of the Shari‘a Law
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
7 The Problem of the Just Ruler and the First Divisions Within the Community
	Opposition to the Umayyads
	The Rise of the Mawáli
	The Kharijites
	‘Ali’s Party
	The Uneasy Loyalists
	Some Early Theological Concepts
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
8 The ‘Abbásid Revolution and Beyond
	The Theological Underpinnings
	The Sources of Discontent
	The Turn of the Wheel: ‘Abbásid Propaganda and the Beginning of the Third Fitna
	The Triumph of the ‘Abbásid Cause
	The Consolidation of ‘Abbásid Power
	The Rearticulation of the Doctrine of the Imamate
	Conclusion: The ‘Abbásid Empire at Its Prime
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
9 Islamic Scholarship Under the ‘Abbásids: The Rise and Development of the Schools of Law
	Introduction
	The Major Stages of the Evolution of Islamic Legal Thought
	The Qur’anic Roots of Islamic Law
	Qur’anic Legislation Pertaining to Marriage, Divorce, and Inheritance
	Qur’anic Punishments for Homicide
	Fiqh, the Fuqahá’, the Muftis, and the Judges
	The Abrogation Theory
	The “Qur’anic Commands” That Are Not in the Qur’an
	The Formation of the Regional Schools of Law
	Muhammad al-Sháfi ‘i (d. 820) and the Crystallization of the Islamic Legal Theory
	The Four Roots of Islamic Jurisprudence
	Later Developments
	Parallel Systems of Justice Under the ‘Abbásids
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
10 Islamic Scholarship Under the ‘Abbásids: Theological Debates and Schools of Thought
	The Qur’an as the Foundation of Islamic Faith and Cult and an Object of Disputation
	The Beginnings of Theological Reasoning in Islam
	Divine Predestination Versus Human Free Will
	The Doctrine of Postponement and the Problem of Faith
	The Emergence of Mu‘tazilism
	The Supporters of Hadíth and Their Theological Creed
	Ibn Hánbal and the Inquisition
	The Theological “Middle Way”: Ash‘arism
	Ash‘arism, Maturidism, and the Hadíth Party
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
11 Twelver Shi‘ism and Zaydism
	The Crystallization of the Shi‘ite Creed in Opposition to Sunnism
	The Divergence of the Shi‘ite and Sunni Visions of Islam
	The Vicissitudes of the Shi‘ite Imamate Under the ‘Abbásids
	The Shi‘ite Community in the Absence of the Divinely Ordained Guide
	The Political and Social Aspects of the Doctrine of Occultation
	“The Shi‘ite Century” (946–1055): Political and Social Aspects
	The Blossoming of Shi‘ite Theology and Jurisprudence
	Shi‘ite Views of the Qur’an
	Zaydism
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
12 Shi‘ism as a Revolutionary Movement: The Isma‘ilis
	Who Are the Isma‘ilis?
	The Rise and Spread of Revolutionary Isma‘ilism
	The Teaching and the Mission
	The Proclamation of ‘Abdallah (‘Ubaydallah) the Máhdi, and the Qarmati–Fatimid Split
	The Rise of the Fatimids
	The Conquest of Egypt and the Consolidation of Fatimid Power
	Another Split: Al-Hákim and the Druzes
	The Crisis Over Al-Mustánsir’s Succession and the Rise of the Nizári Community
	The Principal Articles of the Nizári Creed
	The Collapse of the Fatimid Caliphate
	The Háfizi-Táyyibi Split and Its Impact on the Fortunes of Later Isma‘ilism
	The Qarmati Revolt and the Rise and Fall of the Qarmati State in Bahrain
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
13 Ascetic and Mystical Movement in Islam: Sufism
	Introduction
	The Name and the Beginnings
	Basic Ideas and Goals
	The Archetypal “Sufi”: Al-Hásan al-Basri and His Followers
	Regional Manifestations
	The Formation of the Baghdadi School of Sufism
	The Systematization of the Sufi Tradition
	The Maturity of Sufi Science: Al-Ghazali the Conciliator
	Sufism as Literature
	Sufi Metaphysics: The Impact of Ibn ‘Arabi
	Major Intellectual and Practical Trends in Later Sufism
	The Rise and Spread of Sufi Brotherhoods (Tariqas)
	Sufism and the Cult of “Friends of God” (Saints)
	Sufism and Shi‘ism
	Sufism Today
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
14 Intellectual Struggles in Premodern Islam: Philosophy Versus Theology
	Fálsafa as a Rational Discipline
	Fálsafa and Kalám
	Fálsafa as an Elaboration of Neoplatonic Doctrines
	The Beginnings of Fálsafa
	Al-Kindi, the Philosopher of the Arabs
	Abu Bakr al-Razi, the Physician and Freethinker
	Al-Farábi, the Second Teacher
	Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
	Al-Ghazali, the Proof of Islam
	Ibn Rushd (Averroes), the Commentator
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
15 Transmission and Conservation of Knowledge: ‘Ulamá’, Mádrasas, and Sufi Lodges
	The Status, Venues, and Bearers of Learning in Muslim Societies
	Elementary Education: The Kuttáb
	The Muslim College: Mádrasa
	The Economic Foundations of Mádrasa Education
	Methods and Curricula of Mádrasa Education
	Sufi Lodges
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
16 The Basic Beliefs and Practices of Islam: Islamic Life Cycle
	Islamic Ethos and the Five Pillars
	Visiting the Prophet’s Tomb at Medina
	How Religion Shapes the Lives of Individual Muslims
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
17 Islamic Art and Religious Architecture (Mosque)
	The Qur’an as the Focus of Devotion
	Scriptural Evidence Against Figural Arts
	How Did Artists Respond to the Restrictions?
	The Mosque: Architectural and Devotional Aspects
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
18 Women in Islamic Societies
	The Controversial Topic
	Women in the Qur’an
	Women in Hadíth and Fiqh
	Theorizing the Muslim Woman
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
19 Islam and the West
	The Arab Conquests of Christian Lands
	The Beginnings of the Crusader Movement in Europe
	God’s Wars: The First Crusades and the Muslim Response
	The Muslims Strike Back
	The Legacy of the Crusades
	The Founder of Islam and His Message in the Eyes of His Followers and Through the Christian Looking Glass
	The Scandinavian Caricatures of Muhammad and the Resurgence of Old Prejudices
	Islamic Influences on European Culture
	The Curious (and Inexplicable) Rise of the West
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
20 Islam in the Gunpowder Empires: The World of Islam Faces Modernity and European Colonialism
	The Gunpowder Empires
	What Is Modernity?
	The Beginnings of European Colonial Expansion
	Muslim Responses: Economic and Social
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
21 Renewal and Reform in Islam: The Emergence of Islamic Modernism and Reformism
	Different Reformers and Different Reforms
	The Fundamentalist Reform of Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahháb (d. 1792)
	The Modernist Reforms of al-Afgháni and ‘Abdo
	Muhammad Rashíd Ridá (d. 1935) and al-Manár
	By Way of Conclusion: A Summary of the Major Precepts of Islamic Reform
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
22 Islam as a Political Force and Vehicle of Opposition
	Major Stages of the Movement for Reform and Renewal of Islam
	The Complicated Issue of Terminology
	The Latest Stages of the Evolution of Islamic Activism
	Ayatollah Khomeini (d. 1989) and the Iranian Revolution
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
23 Islam Reinterpreted: Major Trends in Islamic Thought Today
	In Quest of Liberal Islam
	The Principal Themes of Islamic Liberalism
	The Geopolitical Roots of Liberal Islam
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
24 The Ideology and Practice of Globalized Jihadism
	The Afghan War, ‘Abdallah ‘Azzám, and the Rise of Transnational Jihadism
	Changing the Target and Means: al-Qa‘ida, Usáma bin Ládin, and Áyman al-Zawáhiri
	Instead of a Conclusion: Does the Islamist Project Have a Future?
	Conclusions
	Questions to Ponder
	Summary
	Notes
Bibliography
Index