Invertebrate Pathology

Cover
Titlepage
Copyright
Preface
Contents
List of Contributors
Part I Host Defences and Approaches to Disease Detection
	1 Host defences of invertebrates to pathogens and parasites
		Christopher J. Coates, Andrew F. Rowley, L. Courtney Smith, and Miranda M.A. Whitten
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Social distancing—behavioural avoidance of infection, and other mechanisms to avoid infection of hosts
		1.3 Outer coverings—chemical and physical defences
			1.3.1 Integument
			1.3.2 Alimentary canal
			1.3.3 Other routes of infection
		1.4 Wound healing and haemostasis
		1.5 Internal defences—cellular events
			1.5.1 The cells and tissues of invertebrate immune systems
			1.5.2 Phagocytosis
			1.5.3 Nodule formation (nodulation) and encapsulation
			1.5.4 Extracellular chromatin traps (ETosis)
		1.6 Internal defences—recognition and effector molecules
			1.6.1 Signalling pathways
			1.6.2 Antimicrobial peptides
			1.6.3 Lectins/agglutinins
			1.6.4 The phenoloxidase activating system
			1.6.5 Lysozymes
			1.6.6 Lipoproteins
		1.7 Does the invertebrate immune system have specificity and memory?
		1.8 Interaction between viruses and the invertebrate immune system
		1.9 Interaction between bacteria and the invertebrate immune system
		1.10 Interaction between fungi and the invertebrate immune system
		1.11 Interaction between parasites and the invertebrate immune system
			1.11.1 Dermo disease
			1.11.2 Schistosomes and the snail, Biomphalaria glabrata
			1.11.3 Hematodinium infections of crabs
		1.12 Future directions
			1.12.1 The invertebrate microbiome
			1.12.2 The invertebrate immune system in a changing world
		1.13 Summary
		Recommended further reading
		Social distancing—behavioural avoidance of infection and other mechanisms to avoid contact between host and parasite/pathogen
		Chemical and physical barriers to infection
		Wound healing and haemostasis
		Phagocytosis
		Nodule formation and encapsulation
		Signalling pathways
		Antimicrobial peptides
		Lectins
		The prophenoloxidase activating system
		Lysozymes
		Does the invertebrate immune system have specificity and memory?
		Interaction between viruses and the invertebrate immune system
		Interaction between bacteria and the invertebrate immune system
		Interaction between fungi and the invertebrate immune system
		Interaction between parasites and the invertebrate immune system
		Acknowledgements
		References
2 Host defences of invertebrates to non-communicable diseases
	Christopher J. Coates
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Stress avoidance—defensive behaviours in response to physical threats and injury
	2.3 Injury repair and sterile inflammation
	2.4 Anti-tumour defences in invertebrates
	2.5 Cell stress responses and metabolic resistance
		2.5.1 Invertebrate defences to changeable environments
		2.5.2 Coping with oxidative stress
		2.5.3 Xenobiotic metabolism and disposition
		2.5.4 Metals—a balance between regulation and detoxification
	2.6 Summary
	Recommended further reading
	Acknowledgements
	References
3 Diagnostic approaches in invertebrate pathology
	David Bass, Andrew F. Rowley, and Christopher J. Coates
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Sampling regimes
	3.3 Stage 1—Observations of changes in external anatomy and behaviour
	3.4 Stage 2—Observation of tissues
	3.5 Stage 3—Isolation and cultivation of putative pathogens and parasites
	3.6 Stage 4—Histology, immunohistology, and in situ hybridisation
	3.7 Stage 5—Electron microscopy
	3.8 Stage 6—Nucleic acid approaches to disease diagnosis, advances, and pitfalls
	3.9 Summary
	Suggested further reading
	General
	Histology
	In situ hybridisation
	High throughput sequencing
	Acknowledgements
	References
Part II The Diseases
	Section
 A Diseases of Acoelomate and Coelomate Protostomes
		4 Diseases of scleractinian corals
			David G. Bourne, Hillary A. Smith, and Cathie A. Page
			4.1 Introduction
				4.1.1 Coral biology, ecology, and microbiology
				4.1.2 Coral disease background
			4.2 Principal diseases
				4.2.1 Growth anomalies (GAs)
				4.2.2 Black band disease (BBD)
				4.2.3 White syndromes (WSs)
				4.2.4 Dark spot syndrome (DSD)
				4.2.5 Yellow-Band disease (YBD)
				4.2.6 Skeletal eroding band (SEB) and Caribbean ciliate infections (CCI)
				4.2.7 Brown band disease (BrB)
				4.2.8 Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD)
			4.3 Control and treatment of coral diseases
			4.4 Future directions
			4.5 Summary
			Suggested further reading
			Acknowledgements
			References
5 Diseases of sponges
	Heidi M. Luter and Nicole S. Webster
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Sponge biology, ecology, and microbiology
		5.1.2 Sponge disease background
	5.2 Principal diseases
		5.2.1 Sponge boring necrosis
		5.2.2 Sponge necrosis syndrome
		5.2.3 Fatal fungal infection
		5.2.4 Agelas wasting syndrome
		5.2.5 Pustule disease
		5.2.6 Brown lesion necrosis/brown spot syndrome
		5.2.7 Sponge orange band (SOB) and bleaching
		5.2.8 Aplysina red band syndrome (ARBS)
		5.2.9 Black patch syndrome
		5.2.10 Sponge white patch
		5.2.11 Uncharacterised pink necrosis and brown rot syndrome
		5.2.12 Generalised necrosis
	5.3 Control and treatment of diseases
	5.4 Future directions
	5.5 Summary
	Recommended further reading
	References
6 Diseases of platyhelminths, acanthocephalans, and nematodes
	Matt Longshaw and Andrew P. Shinn
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Phylum Platyhelminthes
		6.2.1 Class Turbellaria
		6.2.2 Class Monogenea
		6.2.3 Class Trematoda
		6.2.4 Class Cestoda
	6.3 Phylum Acanthocephala
	6.4 Phylum Nematoda
	6.5 Conclusions and discussion
	6.6 Summary
	References
7 Diseases of annelids
	Jacqueline L. Stroud
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Principal diseases
		7.2.1 Earthworms, infections, pollution, and parasites
		7.2.2 Polychaete parasites, infections, and abnormalities
		7.2.3 Oligochaete parasites, infections, pollution, and abnormalities
		7.2.4 Leeches
	7.3 Future directions
	Recommended further reading
	Risks associated with the bait industry
	Parasite-annelid interactions (now being reconfirmed in contemporary studies)
	References
8 Diseases of molluscs
	Sharon A. Lynch, Andrew F. Rowley, Matt Longshaw, Shelagh K. Malham and Sarah C. Culloty
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Principal diseases
	8.3 Diseases caused by viruses
	8.4 Diseases caused by bacteria
		8.4.1 Vibriosis
		8.4.2 Brown ring disease of clams
		8.4.3 Nocardiosis in oysters and mussels
		8.4.4 Juvenile oyster disease (Roseovarius oyster disease)
		8.4.5 Rickettsia-like bacteria
		8.4.6 Other bacteria
	8.5 Diseases caused by fungi including microsporidians
		8.5.1 Microsporidians
	8.6 Diseases caused by oomycetes and related forms
	8.7 Diseases caused by haplosporidans
		8.7.1 Haplosporidium spp.
		8.7.2 Bonamia spp.
		8.7.3 Minchinia spp.
	8.8 Diseases caused by mikrocytids
	8.9 Diseases caused by other protists
		8.9.1 Marteiliosis
		8.9.2 Perkinsosis and Dermo disease
		8.9.3 Ciliates
	8.10 Diseases caused by ‘macroparasites’
		8.10.1 Trematodes
		8.10.2 Turbellarians
		8.10.3 Nematodes
		8.10.4 Copepods
		8.10.5 Polychaetes
	8.11 Neoplasia
	8.12 Control and treatment
	8.13 Future directions
		8.13.1 Climate change and molluscan diseases
		8.13.2 Disease bottlenecks at hatcheries and therapies
	8.14 Summary
	Suggested further reading
	General
	Viral diseases
	Bacterial diseases
	Microsporidia
	Mikrocytids
	Haplosporidians
	Marteiliosis
	Perkinsosis
	Macroparasites
	Neoplasia
	Control and treatment
	Acknowledgements
	References
Part B Diseases of Arthropods
	9 Diseases of chelicerates
		Christopher J. Coates
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Bacterial diseases of terrestrial chelicerates
			9.2.1 Endosymbionts
		9.3 Fungal diseases of terrestrial chelicerates
		9.4 Parasites and pests of spiders and scorpions
		9.5 Disease of aquatic chelicerates
			9.5.1 Pathobiology of horseshoe crabs
			9.5.2 Pathobiology of sea spiders
		9.6 On the lack of viruses
		9.7 Summary
		Suggested further reading
		Acknowledgements
		References
10 Viral diseases of insects
	Vera I.D. Ros, Delphine Panziera, Remziye Nalcacioglu, Jirka Manuel Petersen, Eugene Ryabov, and Monique M. van Oers
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Major groups of RNA viruses causing disease in insects
		10.2.1 Insect viruses with positive sense RNA genomes
		10.2.2 Insect viruses with negative sense RNA genomes
		10.2.3 Insect viruses with double stranded RNA
	10.3 DNA viruses of insects
		10 3.1 Insect-infecting small DNA viruseswith single-stranded genomes
		10.3.2 Nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA virusesof insects
		10.3.3 Large nuclear DNA viruses of arthropods
		10.3.4 Filamentous viruses of Hymenoptera
	10.4 Use of insect viruses in biocontrolof insect pests
	10.5 Viral disease management in reared insects
	10.6 Future Outlook
	10.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	Recommended further reading
	Extended review on bee viruses:
	Overview of biological control using insect viruses:
	Overviews of the main groups of insect viruses (with RNA, small and large DNA genomes):
	References
11 Bacterial diseases of insects
	Heba Abdelgaffar, Trevor Jackson, and Juan Luis Jurat-Fuentes
	11.1 Introduction: Classification and pathology commonalities
	11.2 Gram-positive entomopathogens
		11.2.1 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
		11.2.2 Lysinibacillus sphaericus
		11.2.3 Milky disease bacteria
		11.2.4 Foulbrood diseases
		11.2.5 Brevibacillus laterosporus
		11.2.6 Clostridium bifermentans
	11.3 Gram-negative entomopathogens
		11.3.1 Serratia spp.
		11.3.2 Chromobacterium spp.
		11.3.3 Yersinia spp.
		11.3.4 Pseudomonas spp.
		11.3.5 Burkholderia rinojensis
		11.3.6 Rickettsiella spp.
	11.4 Summary, research needs, and future directions
	Recommended further reading
	Acknowledgements
	References
12 Fungal and oomycete diseases of insects
	Almudena Ortiz-Urquiza
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Insect-fungal/oomycete interactions
	12.3 Insect pathogenic fungi - diversity and ecology
	12.4 Taxonomy of fungal pathogens of insects
		12.4.1 Phylum Cryptomycota (or Rozellomycota)
		12.4.2 Phylum Microsporidia
		12.4.3 Phylum Chytridiomycota sensu lato
		12.4.4 Phylum Zoopagomycotina
		12.4.5 Phylum Mucoromycota
		12.4.6 Phylum Basidiomycota
		12.4.7 Phylum Ascomycota
	12.5 Insect pathogenic oomycetes
		12.5.1 Order Atkinsiellales (Class Saprolegniomycetes)
		12.5.2 Order Leptomitales (Class Saprolegniomycetes)
		12.5.3 Order Saprolegniales (Class Saprolegniomycetes)
		12.5.4 Order Rhipidiales (Class Peronosporomycetes)
		12.5.5 Order Albuginales (Class Peronosporomycetes)
		12.5.6 Order Peronosporales s. lat. (Class Peronosporomycetes)
	12.6 Summary
	Recommended further reading
	General
	Mechanisms of pathogenicity
	Microsporidians
	Oomycetes
	References
13 Parasitic diseases of insects
	Miranda M.A. Whitten
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Principal parasites and diseases
		13.2.1 Protozoan infections
		13.2.2 Helminth (worm) infections
		13.2.3 Arthropod parasitoids and infestations
	13.3 Future directions and conclusions
	Recommended further reading
	Protozoa
	Nematodes and other worms
	Parasitic arthropods and parasitoids
	References
14 Viral diseases of crustaceans
	Arun K. Dhar, Roberto Cruz-Flores, and Kelly S. Bateman
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Diseases caused by DNA viruses
		14.2.1 Infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV)
		14.2.2 Hepatopancreatic parvovirus (HPV)
		14.2.3 Spawner isolated mortality virus (SMV)
		14.2.4 Lymphoidal parvo-like virus (LPV)
		14.2.5 Penaeus monodon metallodensovirus
		14.2.6 Circoviruses
		14.2.7 White spot syndrome virus (WSSV)
		14.2.8 Shrimp haemocyte iridescent virus (Decapod Iridescent Virus 1 (DIV1)
		14.2.9 Penaeus monodon nudivirus
		14.2.10 Baculovirus penaei (also known as Penaeus vannamei single nucleopolyhedrovirus, PvSNPV)
		14.2.11 Panulirus argus Virus 1
		14.2.12 Bi-Facies Virus (BFV)
		14.2.13 Homarus gammarus nudivirus (HgNV)
		14.2.14 Baculoviral midgut gland necrosis virus (BMN)
		14.2.15 Baculo A and Baculo B
		14.2.16 Cancer pagurus bacilliform virus (CpBV)
		14.2.17 Scylla Baculovirus (SBV)
		14.2.18 Cherax quadricarinatus Bacilliform Virus (CqBV) and Cherax destructor Bacilliform Virus (CdBV)
		14.2.19 Chionoecetes opilio Bacilliform Virus (CoBV)
		14.2.20 Cherax quadricarinatus parvo-like virus (PV) and Cherax destructor systemic parvo-like virus (CdSPV)
		14.2.21 Penaeid haemocytic rod-shaped virus (PHRV)
	14.3 Diseases caused by RNA viruses
		14.3.1 Taura syndrome virus (TSV)
		14.3.2 Yellow head virus (YHV) and Gill-associated virus (GAV)
		14.3.3 Mourilyan virus (MoV)
		14.3.4 Infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV)
		14.3.5 Nodaviruses: Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus, Penaeus vannamei nodavirus (PvNV) and Farfantepenaeus duorarum nodavirus (FdNV)
		14.3.6 Covert mortality syndrome virus
		14.3.7 Laem Singh virus (LSNV)
		14.3.8 Macrobrachium rosenbergii Golda Virus
		14.3.9 Penaeus japonicus reovirus, Penaeus monodon reovirus, Penaeus vannamei reovirus
		14.3.10 Callinectes sapidus reovirus 1 (CsRV1)
		14.3.11 Mud crab reovirus (MCRV)
		14.3.12 Eriocheir sinensis reovirus (EsRV905, EsRV816, and EsRV WX-2012)
		14.3.13 Cherax quadricarinatus reovirus
		14.3.14 Cherax quadricarinatus giardiavirus-like virus
		14.3.15 Eriocheir sinensis ronivirus (EsRNV)
		14.3.16 Mud crab dicistrovirus 1
		14.3.17 Chequa iflavirus and Athtabvirus
		14.3.18 Cancer pagurus systemic bunya-like virus (CpSBV)
		14.3.19 Eriocheir sinensis bunya-like virus (EsBV)
		14.3.20 Lymphoid organ vacuolisation virus (LOVV)
		14.3.21 Wenzhou shrimp virus 1 and 2
	14.4 Diagnosis of viral diseases in farmed crustaceans
	14.5 Disease control and management
	14.6 Future directions
	14.7 Summary
	Acknowledgements
	References
15 Bacterial diseases of crustaceans
	Andrew F. Rowley
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Principal diseases
		15.2.1 Vibriosis
		15.2.2 Rickettsia, Wolbachia and rickettsia-like organisms (RLOs)
		15.2.3 Rickettsiella and Aquirickettsiella
		15.2.4 Shell disease syndromes
		15.2.5 Gaffkaemia (red tail disease)
		15.2.6 Other diseases caused by Gram-positive bacteria
	15.3 Control and treatment of bacterial diseases
		15.3.1 Antibacterial chemicals
		15.3.2 Bacteriophage therapy
		15.3.3 Interference of virulence factor expression using quorum sensing inhibition
		15.3.4 Natural products
		15.3.5 Probiotics
		15.3.6 Immunisation
		15.3.7 Improvement in environmental conditions
	15.4 Future directions
		15.4.1 The crustacean microbiome
		15.4.2 Climate change and emerging bacterial diseases of crustaceans
	15.5 Summary
	Recommended further reading
	Vibriosis
	Rickettsia and RLOs
	Shell disease syndrome
	Diagnosis, control and treatment of bacterial diseases
	Acknowledgements
	References
16 Fungal and oomycete diseases of crustaceans
	Andrew F. Rowley, Jenny Makkonen, and Jeffrey D. Shields
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Principal diseases
	16.3 Diseases caused by true fungi
		16.3.1 Black gill disease
		16.3.2 Burn spot disease (a form of shell disease)
		16.3.3 Metschnikowia bicuspidata infections
		16.3.4 Lethargic crab disease
		16.3.5 Ophiocordyceps-like infections of edible crabs (Cancer pagurus)
		16.3.6 Mycosis of the European shore crab, Carcinus maenas
		16.3.7 Trichomaris invadens infections of snow and tanner crabs
	16.4 Diseases caused by microsporidian fungi
	16.5 Diseases caused by oomycetes
		16.5.1 Crayfish plague (krebspest)
		16.5.2 Lagenidium spp.
		16.5.3 Haliphthoros spp., Halocrusticida spp. and Halioticida sp.
	16.6 Generalised pathology of fungal and oomycete infections in crustaceans
	16.7 Control and treatment
	16.8 Future directions
	16.9 Summary
	Recommended further reading
	Acknowledgements
	References
17 Parasites of crustaceans
	Jeffrey D. Shields
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Principal parasites
		17.2.1 Protozoa (Protistans)
		17.2.2 Helminths
		17.2.3 Kingdom Animalia: Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Crustacea
	17.3 Summary
	Recommended further reading
	Acknowledgements
	References
Part C Diseases of Deuterostomes
	18 Echinoderm diseases and pathologies
		L. Courtney Smith, S. Anne Boettger, Maria Byrne, Andreas Heyland, Diana L. Lipscomb, Audrey J. Majeske, Jonathan P. Rast, Nicholas W. Schuh, Linsheng Song, Ghada Tafesh-Edwards, Lingling Wang, Zhuang Xue, and Zichao Yu.
		18.1 Introduction
			18.1.1 Anatomy and characteristics of echinoderms
			18.1.2 Allorejection established the echinoderm immune system as innate
			18.1.3 The echinoderm immune system
			18.1.4 Coelomocytes and blastocoelar cells mediate echinoderm immune functions
		18.2 Echinoderm pathology
		18.3 Bald sea urchin disease
			18.3.1 Gross pathology of bald sea urchin disease
			18.3.2 Histopathology of bald sea urchin disease
			18.3.3 Putative pathogens of bald sea urchin disease
			18.3.4 Conclusion: bald sea urchin disease
		18.4 Sea star wasting disease
			18.4.1 Symptoms of sea star wasting disease
			18.4.2 Biological causes of SSWD
			18.4.3 The sea star immune response to SSWD
			18.4.4 Conclusion: SSWD
		18.5 Diseases of the sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus, in aquaculture facilities
			18.5.1 Skin ulcer syndrome
			18.5.2 Acute peristome edema disease
			18.5.3 Off-plate syndrome
			18.5.4 Viscera ejection syndrome
			18.5.5 Diseases of larval sea cucumbers
			18.5.6 Environmental factors in aquaculture facilities and disease in A. japonicus
			18.5.7 Strategies for disease prevention and control in A. japonicus in aquaculture facilities
			18.5.8 Approaches to block infection in A. japonicus in aquaculture facilities
		18.5.9 Conclusion: Diseases in A. japonicus
		18.6 Protist pathogens of echinoderms
			18.6.1 The alveolate clade
			18.6.2 The Amoebozoa clade
			18.6.3 The Rhizaria clade
			18.6.4 Plantae (or Archaeplastida)
			18.6.5 Miscellaneous
		18.6.6 Conclusion: Protist parasites of echinoderms
		18.7 Microbial pathology of sea urchin larvae
			18.7.1 Evaluation of toxic compoundsin the environment using larval sea urchins
			18.7.2 Microbial pathology of sea urchin larvae
			18.7.3 Conclusion: pathologies of larval sea urchins
		18.8 Summary and conclusions
			18.8.1 The pathogens
		18.9 Future directions
		Acknowledgements
		References
19 Ecological outcomes of echinoderm disease, mass die-offs, and pandemics
	L. Courtney Smith, Maria Byrne, Keryn B. Gedan, Diana L. Lipscomb, Audrey J. Majeske, and Ghada Tafesh-Edwards
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Mass die-offs from bald sea urchin disease
		19.2.1 Environmental stressors may drive BSUD
		19.2.2 Ecological outcomes of mass die-offs from BSUD
		19.2.3 Conclusions: bald sea urchin disease
	19.3 The massive die-off of the long-spined black sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, in the Caribbean Sea
		19.3.1 Ecological outcomes of the Diadema die-off
		19.3.2 The future of the Caribbean reefs
		19.3.3 Conclusion: the mass die-off of Diadema antallarum
	19.4 Sea star wasting disease and the mass die-off of sea stars
		19.4.1 Environmentally induced stresses as underlying factors in the SSWD pandemic
		19.4.2 Ecological phase shifts resulting from SSWD in the ochre sea star, Pisaster ochraceus
		19.4.3 The ecological phase shift resulting from SSWD and disappearance of the sunflower sea star, Pycnopodia helianthoides
		19.4.4 Conclusion: SSWD
	19.5 Ecological outcomes of echinoderm mass mortality events
		19.5.1 Abiotic impacts to echinoderm populations
		19.5.2 Ecological phase shifts
	19.6 Summary and conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
20 Diseases of tunicates and cephalochordates
	Andrew F. Rowley and Shin-Ichi Kitamura
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Principal diseases
		20.2.1 Soft tunic syndrome
		20.2.2 Gregarine `infections' of tunicates
		20.2.3 Copepods in compound ascidians
		20.2.4 Haplosporidian-like parasites of tunicates
		20.2.5 Egg deposition in tunicates
		20.2.6 Vibriosis in cephalochordates
	20.3 Future directions
	20.4 Summary
	Acknowledgements
	References
Index