مشخصات کتاب

Intuitive IC OP Amps

دسته بندی: الکترونیک
ویرایش: 1 
نویسندگان: Thomas M. Frederiksen  
سری:  
 
ناشر: National Semiconductor Corp 
سال نشر: 1984 
تعداد صفحات: 328 
زبان: English 
فرمت فایل : DJVU (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) 
حجم فایل: 3 مگابایت 

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توضیحاتی درمورد کتاب به خارجی

Many observers note that new digital designs are being used in many systems which, in the past, were realized entirely with linear circuits. This apparent extinction of linear products is not showing up as a decrease in linear sales. What is happening is an increase in the perva- siveness of all semiconductor products. This increase in the total application of semiconduc- tors has also greatly increased the demand for operational amplifiers (op amps). A few years ago, if a particular IC op amp from a major supplier sold 100 thousand per month, it was con- sidered to be very successful. This number now approaches 1 to 3 million per month. If we con- sider the total number of individual op amps (duals counted as 2 and quads as 4) the total unit sales of op amps, by just one major supplier, is approximately one-quarter billion per year! This large consumption of op amps and the fact that op amps are basic to many of the more complex linear IC products suggests a greater need for information about op amps today than at any time in the past. Two additional factors are adding to this problem: (1) many times, system engineers have to design both the linear and digital sections on a project and (2) Univer- sities generally have had to reduce the number of linear courses to fit in the new digital (micro- processor) courses. So it is not surprising that books on op amps are still in demand. One goal of this book is to develop an understanding and appreciation for the reasons that have caused such a vast number of different IC op amp part numbers to exist. As will be seen, various applications demand that specific parameter specifications of an op amp be improved. The difficulty of simultaneously improving all the specs - especially where many times the most important one is low cost - has created a large number of op amp products. The idea for this book came as a result of a 1980 nationwide linear seminar where the author gave a presentation entitled "Op Amp Primer." The favorable reception and the many resulting requests for a book that made use of this intuitive approach provided the encourage- ment to create this book. Although many books have been written about op amps, the focus of these books has either been on the detailed design of the internal circuitry of op amps or the rigors of obtaining high precision in linear circuit design. An intuitive groundwork in the basic functioning con- cepts of the op amp has been missing. Intuition involves thinking about physical systems and circuits in an almost personal way. The emphasis on only a mathematical description, that is given during the formal education process, tends to block this physical intuition. This is why experience must be used to acquire the feelings a circuit designer must have. This background is needed before the reader can fully appreciate the way application circuits are really developed by the endangered species of linear circuit designers. Overheard conversations between op amp users reveal that most design is done with cre- ative imaginations and discussions that produce statements like: "When this input is jerked up, this guy up here is kicked ON and dumps a gob of current into this small cap. . . . " These comments sound like the planning of an electronic Rube Goldberg contraption - which is a valid description for most of the really neat application circuits. Th conceive and create circuits in this component-personal way is what the majority of lin- ear circuit design is all about. This type of thinking requires an intimate understanding of and a feeling for the op amp and the passive and active components that are added to provide the complete application circuit. The purpose of this book is to pass along this feeling for op amps, passive components, and op amp application circuits. Toward this end, only relatively simple mathematics will be used so as not to unnecessarily obscure the main issues involved. The major emphasis will therefore be on first order effects and the high volume, popular op amps. Information is fea- tured that will benefit the designer who may have little or no time for research or study and is under pressure to rapidly produce functioning circuits. Interested designers will then be ready to read the extensive literature on this subject to add further details. Chapter 1 traces the op amp to the early analog computers. The specifications of a high quality vacuum tube op amp circuit of bygone days are compared with those of a particular IC op amp that is often used as a reference point, or benchmark op amp, the 741. A simple model is then introduced for the IC op amp and this is used to explain the reasons for both op amp specs and limitations, because understanding the limitations of real-world op amps can save valuable design time for the reader. The evolution of the monolithic op amp is quickly traced to help appreciate the technical problems that were sequentially solved to arrive at the low cost, high performance op amps of today. The Bi-FET (bipolar combined with field effect transistors) op amps are then described. Insights into the design improvements that were made possible with a new process that allowed adding JFETs (junction field effect transistors) to the bipolar op amp process, are given. Most users of Bi-FET op amps are more interested in the increased slew rate and fre- quency response - relatively few users want only the dc benefits. The story of the popular Quads is next. The large volumes that are shipped each month make the quads the industry's most popular linear products. How and why they came into being historically ties to the requirements of the electronic control systems for automobiles. The low prices that have resulted force many designers to use a quad: sometimes it's because they simply can't afford (or perhaps have forgotten how to bias) a transistor! Inner workings are described so the reader can appreciate some unusually good performance specs. For example, the split-collector gm reduction trick, first used on one of these quads, is shown to solve the fabrication problems of the unsuccessful, early, dual 741. This circuit trick has been the key to the modern, small die-size, low cost op amps. Chapter 2 opens with an intuitive approach to explain how feedback is used to control the performance of an op amp circuit. This shows that feedback can most easily be understood as going UP an attenuator. This novel concept has been found to be an interesting and easily grasped idea that also explains why op amp circuits are less precise than a simple resistive attenuator. Feedback control theory is then introduced to describe the op amp application circuits. The requirement for large open-loop voltage gain and the effects of changes in open-loop volt- age gain on the closed-loop voltage gain of application circuits are quantitatively presented. The major op amp error sources, from the imperfection of the feedback components to the nonideal nature of a real op amp, are discussed in Chapter 3. The benefits of the Bi-FET input stage are described and both the large-signal, high frequency, and rise-time limits of both bipo- lar and Bi-FET op amps are covered. Much of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of the undesired noise sources that contaminate the output voltage of the op amp. The similarity between the analysis of the effects of the dc noise sources (that affect V OUT dc) and the ac noise sources is stressed to aid understanding. The performance predictions that can be made by using these noise sources is illustrated in a number of numerical examples. Many nonexperts shy away from considerations of ac noise because of the confusion that results from the statistical nature of noise. The purpose of the material in this chapter is to show how to predict the amount of ac noise that can be expected in the output voltage of an application circuit. Many common misconceptions are pointed out and a novel way to visually display the effects of the individual ac noise sources is given graphically. Surprising results can be obtained: for some applications the 709 may be the best op amp, for others the lowest noise voltage, high cost op amp may not help. The concepts of noise bandwidth and noise gain are introduced and some very practical examples of their usefulness are given. This chapter ends with a discussion of flicker noise (lff) and popcorn noise. Stability, or freedom from undesired oscillations, is the subject of Chapter 4. The numeri- cal measures of how stable (or unstable) a circuit is, the stability margins (gain margin and phase margin) are defined. Ways of testing the stability of an application circuit are given and the effects of insufficient stability margins are covered. A basic introduction to poles, zeros, and root locus is included to explain these terms and to indicate why they are of interest to the linear system designer. This chapter ends with a practical way to guide the op amp user to the cause of an undesired oscillation. Many basic op amp application circuits are presented in Chapter 5. This is not meant to be a complete listing, but will provide the operating concepts on which more complex op amp application circuits are based. Useful application circuits result from combining a few known circuit tricks in an unusual way to accomplish a desired overall function. Practical user problems are the subject of Chapter 6. These are the generally unpub- lished facts that are provided by experience (and many blown-out op amps or application cir- cuits that "hung up"). It is true that data sheets don't list everything. This can be demonstrated by having a linear system designer read a digital product data sheet or having a digital designer read a linear systems product data sheet. Today, this engineer cross-over is happening more frequently, as one designer is often doing both jobs. (If you find that this list is not complete, please send your "gotcha" to the author - in care of the publisher). Finally, Chapter 7 discusses some of the newest bipolar, Bi-FET, and MOS op

فهرست مطالب

1.0 Background Information
1.1 Analog Computers: The Origin of the Op Amp
Programming an Analog Computer
Newer Hybrid Computers
Generating Sinewaves
The Chopper-Stabilized Vacuum Tube Op Amp
1.2 Getting Inside the Op Amp
The Input Differential Amplifier
The Current Mirror
A Basic Op Amp Circuit
Basic Amplifier Applications of the Op Amp
The Noninverting Amplifier Application
The Inverting Amplifier Application
Limitations of the Op Amp
Differential Input Voltage
Input Common-Mode Voltage
Output Voltage Swing
Output Current
Response Time
Where's the Ground Pin?
A Simple Model for the IC Op Amp
A Model for AC Gain
Predicting the Unity-Gain Frequency
An Op Amp Versus a Low-Pass Filter
Predicting Slew-Rate Limits
Large-Signal Frequency Limits
Small Signal Rise-Time Limits
Small Signal Settling-Time Limits
Large Signal Settling-Time Limits
1.3 The Evolution of the Monolithic Op Amps 
Lateral PNPs are Discovered 
Super-13 NPNs Reduce Input Current 
Slew-Rate Improvements 
Bandwidth Improvements 
Reducing the Size of the Comp Cap 
1.4 A Look at Some of the Popular IC Op Amps 
The Bi-FETs 
LF356, the First Bi-FET 
Reducing Power Drain 
Improving Spec Guarantees 
A Special Design for Fast Settling 
The Popular Quads 
LM3900, the First Quad 
LM324 Quad Op Amp with g_m Reduction 
LM339, a Quad Voltage Comparator 
1.5 The Instrumentation Amp Versus the Op Amp 
2.0 Feedback Control Theory is for Op Amps, Too 
2.1 Considering Feedback as: Going Up an Attenuator 
2.2 Deriving the Key Equation for Feedback Control Systems 
2.3 DC Closed-Loop Gain Dependence on DC Open-Loop Gain 
2.4 The Inverting Gain Application is Different 
2.5 The Four Basic Feedback Configurations 
Voltage-Ratio Feedback 
Current-Ratio Feedback 
Transimpedance Feedback 
Transadmittance Feedback 
2.6 The Effect of Feedback on Input and Output Resistance 
Output Resistance with Shunt Feedback 
Output Resistance with Series Feedback 
Obtaining a Stabilized Output Resistance 
Input Resistance with Series Feedback 
Input Resistance with Shunt Feedback 
2.7 Thermal Feedback Effects 
3.0 Op Amp Error Sources 
3.1 Problems With the Feedback Network 
3.2 Dynamic Errors 
Dynamic Gain Errors 
Rate Errors 
3.3 Response to the Common-Mode Input Signal 
3.4 Differential and Common-Mode Input Impedance 
DC Errors Resulting from Common Mode Input Resistance 
The Effects of the Common-Mode Input Capacitance 
3.5 The DC Noise Sources: Offset Voltage and Input Current 
Modeling the DC Noise Sources 
Matching the DC Resistance at Each Input 
DC Noise Gain 
Nulling Vos and Effects on Drift 
Thermoelectric Voltages as Sources of Vos 
3.6 The AC Noise Sources 
Equivalent Input AC Noise Sources 
Predicting AC Noise in the Output Signal 
Accounting for All of the AC Noise Sources 
AC Noise Bandwidth 
Flicker (Iff) Noise 
AC Noise Gain 
"Popcorn" Noise 
4.0 Frequency Stability, the Oscillation Problem 
4.1 Stability Margins, Gain and Phase 
4.2 Poles and Zeros 
Some Background Material 
Reactances and Impedance Diagrams 
Complex Frequencies and Complex Numbers 
'Transfer Functions 
An RC Low-Pass Filter 
An RC High-Pass Filter 
A Useful Frequency Compensation Network 
Using One Op Amp and Two Rs and Two C s 
Obtaining Complex Poles 
4.3 Root Locus 
Assuming a Single-Pole Op Amp 
With a Two-Pole Op Amp 
For a Real Op Amp 
Final Pole Locations Determine Frequency Response 
4.4 An Introduction to Bode Plot Analysis and Other Thchniques 
4.5 If It Oscillates, the Frequency Indicates Why 
4.6 Effects of Capacitance Loading at the Output 
Coaxial Cables Can Be Capacitors 
Load Capacitance Causes Phase Lag 
Output Stage Instability 
Isolating a Load Capacitance 
4.7 The Effect of the Feedback Pole 
4.8 Some Practical 'Tricks
Taming an Oscillating Amplifier
Problems with Measuring A, the Open-Loop Gain
Dynamic Stability Testing
5.0 Some of the Key Op Amp Application Circuits
5.1 ± 15 VDC Power Supplies Versus a Single + 5 V DC Supply
5.2 Working with Standard Resistor Values
5.3 Some Miscellaneous Circuits
Current to Voltage Converter
Measuring Junction Capacitance
A High Input Impedance Differential Voltmeter
Operating Simultaneously with Two Inputs
Operating a Decompensated Op Amp at Unity Gain
Neutralizing the Input Pole
A Few Multi-Input, Noninverting, Summing Circuits
A Differential Input, Differential Output Amplifier
Single-Amplifier, Maximum Input Voltage Selector
Computer-Controlled Window Comparator
A 'Tri-State Window Comparator
Rate Limiter
AC-Coupled Amplifiers
Getting the Best of Two Op Amps
5.4 Current Sinks, Sources and Pumps
Current Sinks
Using JFETs
Multiple Current Sinks
Current Sources
Current Pumps
The Howland Current Pump
The Improved Howland Current Pump
A Voltage-Controlled Current Pump
A Current-Controlled Current Pump
A Precise Current Mirror
5.5 Bounding Circuits
Op Amp Saturation Kills Speed
Zener Bounding Circuits
Diode Bounding Circuits
Reducing the Effects of Leakage Currents
An Unusual Circuit Application
The Half-Wave Rectifier is Only Half Bounded
Providing Gain
A Precision Analog Switch Using Forced Bounding
The Limiter, a Precise Bounding Circuit
Converting to a Dead Band Circuit
Full-Wave Rectifiers, the Absolute Value Circuits
A Low Cost Circuit
Putting the Diodes in the Loop
Allowing for Input-Signal Summing
Handling Large Input Voltage
Increasing the Input Resistance
Another Circuit Possibility
Waveform Generators
Squarewave Generators
Amplitude-Bounded Sine Wave Oscillators
An Amplitude-Regulated Sine Wave Oscillator
A 'Trianglewave Generator
A Voltage-to-Frequency Converter
5.6 Active Filters
The Filter Approximation Problem
Determining the Number of Poles Needed for a
Butterworth Filter
Cascading to Provide a High-Order Filter
Responding to a Few Cycles of a Sine Wave
Selecting the Passive Components
Scaling the Impedance Levels
Sensitivity Functions
The Effects of Q on the Filter Response
Single-Op Amp Filters
High-Pass Filters
Low-Pass Filters
A Bandpass Filter
A Two-Op Amp Bandpass Filter
A Three-Op Amp Bandpass Filter
The Effects of the Op Amp on the Filter Performance
Including Passive Filters
The New Switched-Capacitor Filters
5.7 Macromodeling the IC Op Amp
6.0 Some of the 1Ypical User Problems
6.1 "We Hold These 'Truths to be Self-Evident. . ."
But There Were No Supplies Shown on the
Application Circuit!
Compensate the Scope Probe
When You Can't Trust Ground
Use Short Lead Lengths to the Inputs
Determining the Minimum Supply Voltage
6.2 Being Unkind to an IC Op Amp
The Parasitic Circuitry is Not Shown
Getting Access to an Epi Tub
The Parasitic SCR
Limits on V_IN Differential
Plugging the Package in Backwards
Pulling V_OUT above V_cc or below - V EE
Taking V_IN above V_cc or below - V_EE
Turning ON a Parasitic Lateral NPN 'Transistor
Current-Mode Inputs Provide Protection
Protecting with Schottky Diodes
Floating the -V_EE Supply and Power Supply Sequencing
Taking V_cc Above V_cc Maximum
Electrostatic Discharges Kill ICs
6.3 Special Low Current Problems
Leakage Paths on the IC Package and PC Board
Using Guard Rings on the PC Board
Plastic is NOT as good as Thflon
6.4 Passive Components Can Degrade Performance
Selecting Resistors
Variable Resistors or Potentiometers
Selecting Capacitors
Soldering Disturbs the Circuit
6.5 A Common 'Transistor Current Source Biasing Error
6.6 Basic Op Amp Testing
Determining the Offset Voltage, Vos
A Way to Measure Open-Loop Gain
Measuring I_B and I_os
Extrapolating to Find the Unity-Gain Frequency
Use a Large Input-Signal to lest the Slew Rate Limit
Measuring the DC Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
6.7 Oven Testing Problems
Components in the Oven
Getting Leads In and Out
Moisture Condensation
6.8 How to Read an Op Amp Data Sheet
The Captivating First Page
The Life-Sustaining Absolute Maximum Ratings
Electrical Characteristics: the Guarantees
Typical Performance Characteristics
7.0 New Developments and the Future of Op Amps
7.1 Problems with MOS Op Amps
New CMOS Linear Circuits
Using Analog Switches
Using New Circuit Approaches
Improving Analog-to-Digital Converters
7.2 Linear MOS Op Amps on LSI Chips
7.3 New Possibilities with Bipolar Op Amps
Bibliography
Index

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